cool, humid, and somewhat unhealthy; but in the higher south-east districts, hot summers alternate with very cold winters. April and November are always rainy months. These varieties of climate are favourable to a greater variety of produce than the neighbouring country of Holland can supply. The Ardennes districts yield a large supply of wood; while the level provinces raise all kinds of grain-wheat, rye, barley, oats, &c., leguminous plants, hemp, flax, colza, tobacco, hops, dye-plants, and chicory. Belgium contains upwards of 7,000,000 acres, of which one-half is arable, rather more than one-fifth in meadow and pasture, the same in woods and forests, and not above 500,000 acres lying waste. Some hundreds of acres are devoted to vineyards, but the wine produced is of an inferior quality. The forests of Ardennes abound in game and other wild animals. Good pasturage is found on the slopes and in the valleys of the hilly districts, and in the rich meadows of the low provinces. Gardening occupies not less than 130,000 acres; indeed, it has been said that the agriculture of B. is just gardening on a large scale, so carefully and laboriously is every inch of soil cultivated. The spade is still the principal instrument used. In the Campine, the care of bees is very productive, and the cultivation of the silkworm is encouraged. There are valuable fisheries on the coast, which employ about 200 boats. B. is famous for its horses, and in one year contained as many as 294,537 of these animals, 1,203,891 horned cattle, and 662,508 sheep.

Geology. The geological formations of B. are closely associated with those of France and Britain. The greater portion of the country is covered with Tertiary deposits. A line drawn across the course of the Scheldt, by Mechlin, along the Demer and Maas, will have on its northern and north-western aspect a tract of tertiary deposits, bounded northwards by the sea. In these tertiary strata the different geological periods are fully represented; but only the second, containing the Pleiocene deposits, is rich in fossils. The Secondary deposits occupy an extensive tract in the centre of Belgium, between the Scheldt and the Demer. The most important district, economically, is the south-western, consisting of Palæozoic rocks-Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous. These beds have a very complicated structure, from the numerous and extensive flexures and folds they have undergone, and these are often accompanied with great upward shifts, by which beds of many different ages are brought to the same level.

Mineral Products.-B. is rich in minerals, which, next to its abundant agriculture, constitute the chief source of its national prosperity. The four provinces in which they are found are Hainault, Namur, Liege, and Luxembourg. They include lead, copper, zinc, calamine, alum, peat, marble, limestone, slate, iron, and coal. Lead is wrought, but only to a small extent, in Liege; copper in Hainault and Liege; manganese in Liege and Namur; black marble at Dinant; slates at Herbemont; and calamine principally at Liege. But these products are insignificant compared to the superabundance of coalfrom anthracite to the richest gas coal-and iron, in which B. ranks next to England. In 1871, the 'put out' of coals in B. was 13,733,176 tons, the total value of which was £6,152,120. Nearly threefourths of the exports of coal during the four years 1868-1871, went to the Netherlands. The number of people employed at the end of that year in the coal-mines of Hainault, Namur, and Liege was 94,186; the average daily pay of the workmen, 2 francs; and the cost of production, 9 francs per ton of coal. The iron-ore weighs annually about two million tons, and the prepared iron nearly half that quantity.

The modern industrial character of the Belgians

may be traced back to a very early period, even to the time of the Romans, who noticed the love of traffic prevailing in the Celtic districts of Gallia Belgica. This characteristic has remained steadfast to the present time. It is impossible not to recognise in the cloth-weaving Atrebate the ancestors of the industrious race who gradually extended themselves towards the east and north of Belgium. During the early commerce of Europe, when trade was secure only within walled towns, Flanders was the principal seat of productive industry; and its recent separation from Holland has also been indirectly favourable to the development of its internal resources. A state which, like B., begins its career under a burden of debt, which is shut in between nations who possess important ports and colonies, and which is peopled by races not yet sufficiently blended to constitute a perfect nationality, must, before all other things, develop its internal, material resources. This has been well understood in Belgium. Since the commencement of its independent career, it has devoted its attention almost exclusively to those branches of industry and commerce by which its future greatness must be supported.

Manufactures.-The chief manufactures are linen, woollen, cotton, silk, lace, leather, and metals. The great seats of the linen manufacture-recently revived after a long depression-are Courtray and Bruges, in West Flanders; Ghent, in East Flanders; Brussels, in Brabant; Mechlin, or Malines, in Antwerp; and Tournay, in Hainault. The number of linen pieces annually produced is about 900,000. The lawn and damask fabrics of Bruges are celebrated, as well as the lace made in and near Brussels, Malines, Louvain, and Bruges, which sometimes commands a price of £40 per yard. But the Belgian hand-spun yarn, though superior in quality, cannot maintain its ground against machinery. Verviers, Liege, Dolhaim, Ypres, Doperinghe, Limbourg, Bruges, Mons, Thuin, and Hodimont are centres of the woollen manufacture. Ypres alone employs 50,000 workmen in this branch of industry. Brussels and Tournay have large carpet manufactures, and Hainault supplies a considerable amount of hosiery. The principal manufactures of cotton are at Ghent and Lokeren, in East Flanders; Bruges and Courtray, in West Flanders; Malines, Louvain, and Anderlecht, in Brabant; Tournay and Mons, in Hainault; and also at Antwerp. The separation of B. from Holland had at first a prejudicial effect on this as on other trades; but the opening of the navigation of the Scheldt, the intersection of the country by railways and canals, and, in consequence, the rapid and extensive communication with other countries, have revived the activity of the cotton trade, which now gives employment to between one and two hundred thousand workmen. Maestricht, which belongs to Holland, is one of the chief seats of manufactures of leather; but this trade is also carried on at Limbourg, Liege, Stadelot, Namur, Dinant, and especially at Bruges and Ghent. The manufacture of gloves has made great progress in recent years. Metallurgy also has rapidly increased in productiveness since 1816, when Cockerill introduced into B. the English method of smelting iron with coke. The principal seats of the metal manufacture are Liege, Namur, Charleroi, Mons, and their neighbourhoods. There are large ordnance foundries at Liege and Malines, and celebrated makers of firearms and machinery in Liege; nail-making at Charleroi; tinware, &c., at Liege and in Hainault; wire and brass factories at Namur; zinc manufactures at Liege; lead and shot factories at Ghent; the gold and silver goods of Brussels and Ghent may also be noticed as important branches of Belgian industry. Flax is

one of the most extensive and valuable products of B., no fewer than 400,000 persons being employed in its culture and preparation. Besides these, we may mention the straw-bonnet manufacture in the neighbourhood of Liege; the paper fabrics of the provinces Liege, Namur, and Brabant; the glassworks of Hainault, Namur, Val-St-Lambert, and Brabant; the porcelain, &c. of Tournay, Brussels, Mons, and Ghent; and sugar-refineries at Antwerp, Bruges, Ostend, Ghent, &c. Steam-engines have been quite familiar objects in the several manufactories of B. for many years.

The natural wealth and industrial resources of B. have always been more or less modified by the political relations of the country. In the middle of the 13th c., B., with Bruges as its chief seat of manufactures, had surpassed all its neighbours in industry, and had established a flourishing commerce with the Italians. After the discovery of America, Antwerp took the place of Bruges, and was regarded as a northern Venice. But the unhappy period of Spanish oppression and the war in the Netherlands deeply depressed Belgian commerce, which suffered still more at the peace of Westphalia, when Holland monopolised the navigation of the Scheldt. The river was again opened at the close of the 18th c., when the French had invaded the Netherlands, and Napoleon caused the harbour of Antwerp to be restored and enlarged. At the cost of Amsterdam, Belgian commerce received a new impulse by the union of B. with Holland, as settled by the Congress of Vienna; but scarcely were hopes revived, when the revolution of 1830 changed the prospects of the country. The treaty signed in London, April 19, 1839, gave to Holland the right to levy a toll of two-and-sixpence per ton on all vessels navigating the Scheldt. The privilege of navigation on the inland waters between the Scheldt and the Rhine was purchased by B. for an annual payment of £50,000. In June 1839, this privilege was virtually taken away by the government of Holland, and, in 1843, with additional expense to B., the new treaty of navigation was ratified by both parties. During this crisis preceding the development of a free commerce, B. had not neglected her internal resources. The Société de Commerce de Bruxelles, the Banque de Belgique, and other associations for the extension of trade, had been formed; and May 1, 1834, the government adopted the scheme for a railway-system the most complete of any on the continent. The centre of the Belgian net-work of railways is Malines, whence lines are carried out in all directions. The north line goes to Antwerp and its harbour; the west, by Ghent and Bruges, to Ostend; the south-west, by Brussels and Mons, to Quiévrain and the borders of France, not far from Valenciennes; and the east, by Louvain, Tirlemont, Liege, Verviers, and extending to the confines of Prussia. There were in 1873 open for conveyance in B. 1191 miles of railway lines; of these 467 miles were in the hands of the state, and the rest were worked by companies. The cost of the permanent way and buildings of these lines has been about £18,280 a mile. The net revenue at present is stated to be £1508 a mile. The working of the post-office in B. was, in 1871, as follows: Private letters, 46,136,520; official letters, 7,835,693; packets, 18,371,216; newspapers, 47,120,191. On January 1, 1872, there were in that country 430 postoffices, 452 telegraph stations, and the total length of telegraph lines was 7031 miles, the length of wires 23,994 miles. B., along with France, Italy, and Switzerland, entered on a monetary league in 1865, in which the four states agreed to adopt the French decimal system of coins, weights, and measures. During the three years 1869-1871, the general com

merce of B. averaged £100,000,000 in value, rather more than half of which sum was due to imports. The commercial intercourse of B. with Great Britain, in 1872, was represented in value by £13,211,004 for exports; and for imports of British home produce, £6,499,062. Among the principal articles of export are coal, flax, linen, woollen, and cotton goods, glass, firearms, and nails. More than a third of the whole quantity is consigned to France, and half of the remainder to the Zollverein, England, and Holland. The unit of the Belgian monetary system is the franc, equal in value to the French franc.

It cannot be said that intellectual improvement has kept pace with the material prosperity of B., though in this respect also there has been a perceptible advance. The great hindrances to a thorough development of the national intellect have been the lack of political independence, which has drawn off the most precious energies of the country to foreign centres of activity; and the variety and confused mixture of dialects, whereby the true Flemish individuality has been driven into the background. An independent national literature, acting as the bond of a pure national unanimity, was not possible, under such unfavourable conditions, to which may be added the facilities afforded for supplying the people with cheap reprints of foreign works. The Flemish element-the most important-seems indeed to have become conscious of its capabilities in respect to literature; but a genuine expression of the entire Belgian mind will first become possible when the Walloon element also begins to develop a freer form of speech along with its own peculiar modes of thought. The Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences at Brussels is at the head of several other unions for scientific purposes. Among the most celebrated names in Belgian literature and science, may be mentioned-Quetelet in mathematics, Altmeyer the historian, Fetis the musical critic, Conscience the Flemish poet and novelist, Willems the philologist, and Baron and Moke in literary history and criticism. Painting and architecture formerly flourished in the wealthy old towns of Flanders; but after the brilliant epoch of Rubens and his pupils, a long period of dulness followed. In modern times, a revival of art has taken place, as may be proved by the names of the painters, Wappers, De Keyser, Gallait, De Biefve, Verboekhoven, &c.; the sculptors, W. Geefs, Simonis, Jehotte, Fraikin, &c.; the engravers, Calamatta, Brown, and Meunier; and the medallists, Wiener and Hars.

The Belgian school-system suffered for more than ten years under the freedom of teaching allowed by the constitution, which was chiefly made use of by the wealthy Catholic clergy. The consequence was that education assumed a divided and sectarian character. Since the state, however, has exercised a general superintendence over the universities, gymnasia, and elementary schools, a higher style of education has prevailed. The two universities of Ghent and Liege, united with a school of architecture and mining; ten national schools (Athénées), in which a classical is combined with a commercial education; fifty schools preparatory to these (Ecoles moyennes); two seminaries for teachers at Lierre and Nivelle, besides the superintendence now exercised by the state over the institutions formerly maintained by communes and provincial corporations, and, above all, over the primary schools-all this forms a sufficient counterpoise to the numerous schools supported by private individuals and religious bodies. Among the latter may be noticed the Catholic High School of Louvain, founded in 1836, and conducted under strict ecclesiastical discipline; the free university of Brussels; and the gymnasia of the Jesuits at Namur, Brugelette, Brussels, and Liege. Journalism in B.

has been greatly extended by the abolition of the stamp-duty (1848), and 180 daily newspapers are now published, including 56 Flemish papers; but only a few have obtained a proper degree of respectability and influence.

Population and Religion.-The population of B. is of mixed German and Celtic origin. The Flemings (a branch of the Teutonic family) and Walloons (a branch of the Celtic family), distinguished by their peculiar dialects, are still conspicuous among the pure Germans, Dutch, and French. The French language has gained the ascendency in educated society, and in the offices of government; but the Flemish dialect prevails numerically in the proportion of 4 to 3. The Catholic religion is the prevailing form. There are only about 10,000 or 12,000 Protestants, and 1400 Jews. The supreme Catholic dignitaries of B. are the Archbishop of Mechlin, and the five diocesan bishops of Bruges, Ghent, Tournay, Namur, and Liege.

The government of Belgium is a limited constitutional monarchy, and was established in its present form by the revolution of 1830. The legislative body consists of two chambers-that of the senate, and that of the representatives. A responsible ministry, with the king as president, is at the head of all public affairs, and its measures are carried into effect by the governors of the several provinces. The ministry includes departments for home affairs, foreign affairs, finance, justice, public works, and war. The administration of justice retains the forms of French jurisprudence. In the thirty years 1841-1870 the total expenditure of the state amounted to £150,784,059. The national debt amounted in 1873 to 924,549,013 francs, or £36,981,960.

The standing army of B. is formed by conscription, to which every healthy man who has passed his nineteenth year is liable. Substitution is allowed. The legal period of service is eight years, but about five years are allowed on furlough. According to a law passed in 1868, the strength of the army is to be 100,000 men on the war footing, and 80,000 in times of peace. The importance of B. in a military point of view affords a reason for the maintenance of fortifications at Antwerp, Ostend, Nieuport, Ypres, Tournay, Mons, and other places.

History of Belgium to 1830.-In the time of the Romans, the name Gallia Belgica was given to the Southern Netherlands lying on the confines of Gaul and Germany. It was peopled by Celtic and German tribes. The latter were predominant in Batavia and Friesland, and, under the rule of the Franks in the 5th and 6th c., gained the ascendency also in the southern districts. Until the close of the 11th c., the feudal system, which arose at the fall of the Carlovingian dynasty, prevailed in the Netherlands, where the several southern provinces were made duchies and counties. The county of Flanders, superior to all the others in industry and commerce, maintained, during a long struggle, its independence against France; and, in 1385, when the male line of the Counts of Flanders expired, was annexed to the powerful House of Burgundy, which, in the beginning of the 15th c., also gained possession of all the other provinces of the Netherlands. The rulers of Burgundy aimed at founding a powerful united state between France and Germany, and therefore endeavoured to repress the free republican spirit which manifested itself in the rapidly rising towns. The work of establishing unlimited sovereignty was interrupted by the fall of Charles the Bold, and the partial division of his territories; but was continued by the Emperor Charles V., the grandson of the Emperor Maximilian, and Maria,

the heiress of Burgundy-through the latter of whom the Netherlands passed into the possession of the House of Hapsburg. After the abdication of Charles, these provinces passed into the hands of Philip II., and by the law of primogeniture, should have remained united with Spain. But scarcely had the peace of Château-Cambresis (1559) put an end to the encroachments of France, when the religious disputes of the Reformation, and the despotic measures of Philip, excited in the provinces a long and bloody war for civil and religious freedom, which ended in the independence of the Northern or Teutonic Netherlands, while in the southern or more Celtic provinces (now included under B.), both the sovereignty of Spain and the rule of the Roman Catholic Church continued. In 1598, B. was ceded by Philip II. to his daughter Isabella, wife of the Archduke Albert, when it became a distinct and independent kingdom. Several measures for the better regulation of internal affairs, especially in the administration of justice, and for the revival of industry, which had been injured by the unenlightened policy of Philip, were projected. Unfortunately, Albert died childless in 1621, and B. fell back into the hands of Spain, and became involved in the wars attending the decline of the Spanish monarchy. Peace was concluded chiefly at the cost of Belgium. By the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), the counties of Artois, Thionville, and other districts, were given to France. Subsequent conquests by the same powerful neighbour secured to it, at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), the possession of Lille, Charleroi, Oudenarde, Courtray, and other places. These were partly restored to B. at the peace of Nimeguen; but as a compensation, Valenciennes, Nieuport, Cambray, St Omer, Charlemont, and other places, were given up, and only partially regained by B. at the peace of Ryswick in 1697. After the conclusion of this treaty, at the close of the reign of Charles II. of Spain, some endeavours were made to create prosperity in B. by a new system of taxation and customs, and by the construction of canals, to counteract the injury done to its commerce by the closing of the navigation of the Scheldt; but these projected improvements were interrupted by the Spanish War of Succession, which was not concluded until the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. By this treaty, B. was given to Austria, Holland retaining the privilege of garrisoning the most important fortresses on the French frontier, and also of exercising a monopoly of the navigation of the Scheldt. The Belgian Commercial Company' at Ostend, founded by Charles VI. in 1722, fell in 1731-another sacrifice to the cupidity of Holland. During the Austrian War of Succession (1744), almost the whole country fell into the hands of the French; but was peaceably restored to Austria by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748).

B. remained undisturbed by the Seven Years' War, and during the long peace following the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, prosperity was restored. Especially during the mild reign of Maria Theresa of Austria, measures of public improvement were promoted by Prince Charles of Lorraine, governor of the Belgian provinces. The reign of Joseph II., son and successor of Maria Theresa, began in disputes with Holland. The latter country consented to the abolition of the Barrière-contract, in consequence of which, several important fortresses were demolished, though the emperor failed in his endeavour to make free the navigation of the Scheldt. But the errors of his internal administration were the serious feature of his policy. By his innovations, he offended the religious sympathies of the people, and violated the legal privileges of the states, of which he had made the strict preservation

a condition of obedience. In a short time, discontent openly manifested itself. The Austrian authorities were attacked; Brabant refused to pay taxes; while the more violent fled into Holland, and organised an armed expedition. Returning, they were joined by numbers of the inhabitants, defeated the foreign troops, captured Brussels, and in the beginning of 1790, declared their independence. In the course of the year, however, the Austrians succeeded in regaining possession of the country. The privileges of the states as they existed at the close of the reign of Maria Theresa were restored, and at the same time stringent measures were adopted to prevent any renewal of disturbances. But this state of peace was soon interrupted by the outbreak of the war of the French Revolution. B. was conquered by Pichegru in the campaign of 1794, and subsequently united to France by the treaties of Campo-Formio and Luneville. It now shared in the fortunes of France during the Consulate and the Empire; received the Code Napoleon; and in all political relations, was organised as a part of France. After the fall of Napoleon, it was united with Holland, and its boundaries defined by the Congress of Vienna (May 31, 1815).

At the introduction of the new constitution, the want of national unity in language, faith, and manners was strikingly manifested by the two great parties-the Dutch Protestant population, with their commercial habits, on the one side, and the Catholic population, of agricultural and manufacturing B., on the other. These natural and unavoidable obstacles to the political harmony of the new kingdom, were further increased by the unfair treatment which B. experienced. All the more important provisions of the constitution had a regard chiefly to the interests of Holland. Repeated attempts were made to supersede the Belgian language by the Dutch in all affairs of administration and jurisprudence, though the former were the more numerous people; the privileges of the Belgian clergy were abridged; the poorer classes were severely taxed; while the government was almost exclusively composed of Dutchmen. In 1830, among seven ministers, there was only one Belgian; among 117 functionaries of the ministry of the interior, only 11 Belgians; among 102 subordinates of the ministry at war, only 3 Belgians; and among 1573 officers of infantry, only 274 Belgians. B. was politically divided into two classes-the Liberal and the Catholic. Both of these strongly resented and opposed the encroachments of Holland: the Liberals, from a desire to preserve the national secular institutions; the Catholics, from a desire to preserve the national Church. The government became alarmed at their increasing hostility; and ultimately, when their patriotic fusion rendered its position critical, it made several concessions; the supremacy of the Dutch language, and the taxes on the necessaries of life, were abolished. Efforts were also made to conciliate the Catholic priesthood. But these concessions came too late, and were, in consequence, only construed as signs of weakness. In 1828 and 1829, it was attempted to coerce and intimidate the opposition, by prosecuting the liberal or democratic leaders. This only fanned the fire of discontent, which was already burning fiercely in the hearts of the Belgians, and panting for an opportunity to break out into visible insurrection.

From 1830 to 1858.-The French revolution of 1830 afforded the desired occasion. On the king's birthday (August 24, 1830), several riots occurred in various towns of Belgium. At this period, however, the idea of separation from Holland does not seem to have presented itself consciously to the Belgian mind; the deputies who

were sent to the Hague to state the causes of the general dissatisfaction, merely insisted on its possessing a separate administration, with the redress of particular grievances. But the dilatory and obstructive conduct of the Dutch deputies in the states-general assembled at the Hague on the 13th September, exasperated the Belgian nation beyond measure. A new and more resolute insurrection instantly took place. In seven days, the people had deposed the old authorities, and appointed a provisional government. Prince Frederick, the son of the sovereign, who commanded his father's troops, was compelled to retreat from Brussels to Antwerp, having suffered considerable loss. On the 4th of October, B. was declared independent by the provisional government, composed of Messieurs Rogier, D'Hooghvorst (commandant of the civic guard), Joly, an officer of engineers, and the secretaries Vanderlinden and De Coppin; Count Felix de Mérode, Gendebien, Van de Meyer, Nicolai, and De Potter, the democratic leader. They also announced that a sketch of the new constitution was in course of preparation, and that a national congress of 200 deputies would shortly be called together. Freedom of education, of the press, of religious worship, &c., were proclaimed. Here and there, the new liberty shewed a tendency to become anarchic; but its excesses were speedily suppressed; and at the national congress of the 10th November, out of 187 votes, only 13 were in favour of a democratic government. Meanwhile, the London Congress had assembled, and after mature deliberation, recognised the severance of the two kingdoms as a fait accompli (December 10). The Belgian Congress, on its assembly appointed Baron Surlet de Chokier provisional regent, but on the 9th July elected Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg king, who entered Brussels on the 21st of the same month, and subscribed the laws of the constitution. This prince proved himself one of the wisest monarchs of modern times. He died in 1865, and was succeeded by his son, Leopold II., the present (1874) king of B. Holland refused to acknowledge the validity of the decision of the London Congress, and declared war against B., which was speedily terminated by France and England-Holland securing that B. should annually pay 8,400,000 guilders as interest for its share in the national debt of Holland. The latter country, however, was still dissatisfied, and ventured to employ force. England and France were compelled to interfere. The blockade of the coast of Holland brought the Dutch to terms, and the dispute was closed by a treaty signed in London, May 21, 1833.

The monarchy of B. is hereditary, according to the law of primogeniture, but with a perpetual exclusion of females and their descendants. The legislative power is vested in the king and two chambers; and the king has the power to dissolve either the Senate or the House of Representatives, or both. The number of deputies in 1869 was 116, sent by 41 electoral districts. Electors must be Belgians by birth or naturalisation, must have attained 25 years of age, and pay taxes, each to the amount of £1, 13s. 4d. Members of the Chamber of Representatives require no property qualification. The Senate consists of half the number of representatives, and is elected by the same constituency, but for 8 years instead of 4. A senator must be 40 years of age, and must pay at least 1000 florins of direct taxes. The budget is annually voted by the chambers, and the contingent of the army is also subject to their annual vote.

In 1842, a law was carried in both chambers, by which it was enacted that the parishioners should be bound to provide elementary schools, according to the wants of the population, in all places where the want of education was not fully supplied by