CANONICAL HOURS-CANONS OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND.

Langton, in the reign of Henry III., to Henry Chicheley, in the reign of Henry V., and adopted also by the province of York in the reign of Henry VI. At the dawn of the Reformation, in the reign of Henry VIII., it was enacted in parliament that a review should be had of the C. L.; and till such review should be made, all canons, constitutions, ordinances, and synodals provincial being then already made, and not repugnant to the law of the land or the king's prerogative, should still be used and executed. And as no such review has yet been perfected, upon this enactment now depends the authority of the C. L. in England, the limitations of which appear, upon the whole, to be as follows: that no canon contrary to the common or statute law, or the prerogative royal, is of any validity; that, subject to this condition, the canons made anterior to the parliamentary provision above mentioned, and adopted in our system (for there are some which have had no reception among us), are binding both on clergy and laity; but that canons made since that period, and having no sanction from the parliament, are, as regards the laity at least, of no force. See CANONS OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND.

In Scotland, Presbyterian though the ecclesiastical system of that country be, the old Roman C. L. still prevails to a certain extent. So deep hath this canon law been rooted,' observes Lord Stair in his Institutes of the Scotch Law, that even where the pope's authority is rejected, yet consider ation must be had to these laws, not only as those by which church benefices have been erected and ordered, but as likewise containing many equitable and profitable laws, which, because of their weighty matter, and their being once received, may more fitly be retained than rejected. In two old Scotch acts of parliament, made in 1540 and 1551, the C. L. is used in conjunction with the Roman law to denote the common law of the country, the expression used being 'the commoun law, baith canon, civil, and statutes of the realme.' See on the subject of this article generally the following authorities-Blackstone's Commentaries, by Kerr, vol. i. pp. 65 and 66; Stephen's Commentaries, 4th edition, vol. i. pp. 61 and 69-vol. ii. pp. 251, 256, 257, and 290-vol. iii. pp. 45, 48, and 421-and vol. iv. p. 242; Dr Irving's Study of the Civil Law; and Phillimore on the Influence of the Ecclesiastical Law, &c., 1851. See also a discriminating article on this subject in Knight's Political Dictionary, 1845; and see Wharton's Law Dictionary, 2d edition, 1859. It will also be found carefully treated in Dr Hook's Church Dictionary, In regard to Scotland, see 7th edition, 1854. Stair's Institutes of the Law of Scotland, I. 1, 13, and II. 8, 29; and Erskine's Institutes of the same law, I. 1, 28.

dividing the day into seven parts were that in seven
days the creation was completed, that seven times
a day the just man falls, there are seven graces
of the Holy Spirit, seven divisions of the Lord's
Prayer, seven ages of a man's life, &c. The hours,
had also each its mystical reference to certain
sacred occurrences, such as the incidents at our
Lord's birth and crucifixion. The word 'hour,' in
C. H., is derived, as some have suggested, from ora,
a prayer; but more probably from hora, an hour,
or rule of the church. The proper offices for the
and called canonical because according to the canon
See
CANONICALS, a term used to describe the
C. H. are to be found in the BREVIARY (q. v.).
proper ecclesiastical dress of the clergy.
VESTMENTS.

CANONISATION, in the Church of Rome, the
act of the pope by which a deceased person is
solemnly declared to be a saint. It had its origin
in the practice of the early church, of inserting in
the commemorative prayer of the Eucharistic
Liturgy the roll of the names of those who had
died as martyrs, or distinguished themselves as
confessors of the faith. This record was entered in
the diptychs of the church, and read in the so-called
Canon of the Liturgy. Each bishop was at first
accustomed to declare deceased persons to be saints.
In the West, the exercise of this power came to be
reserved to the popes, and the ceremonial itself was
The first papal C. was
invested with much solemnity, and regarded as of
accomplished by John XV. The popes have pos-
very great importance.
sessed the exclusive right since 1170. The right of
Beatification (q. v.) also belongs to them. When it
is proposed to canonise a person of reputed sanctity,
the pope declares his views in a consistory, and an
inquiry is instituted as to the virtues and merits
of the person proposed. The form of inquiry is that
of a regular process at law, and an ecclesiastic is
advanced, who receives the designation of Advocatus
specially appointed to contend against the claims
Diaboli; and on failure of satisfactory proof, the
process is abandoned. When a favourable decision
is pronounced, the ceremony of C. is performed in
was in 1862.
St Peter's Church with great pomp. The last C.

The Greek Church also recognises Canonisation. The right to perform the ceremony lies with the Patriarch of Constantinople, but it has rarely An analogy to Christian canonisation occurred. has been found in the Apotheosis (q.v.) of the

ancient Romans.

CANONRY, the office and dignity of a CANON. See CATHEDRAL.

CANONS, BOOK OF, in Scottish ecclesiastical history, a code of canons or rules for the Church of Scotland, prepared by the Scottish bishops, in obedience to the command of Charles I., revised by Laud, and confirmed by letters-patent under the great seal, 23d May 1635. It tended much to increase the dissatisfaction prevalent throughout Scotland, and which soon broke out so violently. It not only required the most strict adherence to the Liturgy, then not yet published, but enjoined many things concerning ceremonies in worship beyond what Laud had been able to introduce in the govern. Church of England; it also took away the powers of church-courts, and decreed the penalty of excommunication against all who should deny the ment of the church by bishops to be scriptural, whilst its very first canon decreed that penalty THE CHURCH OF against all who should deny the king's supremacy in ecclesiastical affairs. CANONS

CANO'NICAL HOURS are the times fixed for divine service in the Catholic Church, but no longer strictly adhered to. These have not always been the same, and it is not known when nor by whom they were settled-some say by Popes Damasus, or Gelasius, or Gregory-but they are now fixed at seven; viz., Matins and Lauds, Prime, Tierce, Sext, Nones, Vespers, and Compline. These used to be observed as follows: Prime, Tierce, Sext, and Nones, at the first, third, sixth, and ninth hours of the day, counting from six in the morning; Vespers at the eleventh hour; Compline, or Completorium, as completing the services of the day, at midnight; and Matins shortly after midnight. These hours were by the Anglo-Saxons called Uhtsang, Primesang, Undersang, Middaysang, NoonThe first two sang, Evensang, and Nightsang. and the last formed the nocturnal, the remaining four the diurnal offices. The reasons given for the ENGLAND, called Constitutions and Canons

569

OF

CANOPIC VASES-CANOSA.

CANOSSA-CANT.

is obscured in the mists of mythology), on the site of whose citadel the modern town is said to stand. The antiquities consist of subterranean sepulchres, containing painted vases and funereal furniture of the most magnificent description in perfect order, painted busts, marble statues, &c. Many of the bodies found here were attired in cloth of gold, with head-dresses gleaming with precious stones, and earrings and bracelets of rich and exquisite workmanship. The objects were transferred to the museum at Naples. The ruins of an amphitheatre, C. suffered aqueduct, &c., have also been found. by earthquake in 1851. Pop. 8000.

honour of having restored to sculpture the position
which it had lost among the modern fine arts.
After Michael Angelo Buonarotti and Bernini, he
was the third of epoch-making Italian sculptors.
His delicate execution and masterly treatment of
marble are unrivalled, and even his faults-viz.,
his exaggerated nicety and carefulness, and his
use of corrosives to produce fine finish-served to
attract by the novel effects which they produced.
The essential characteristic of all his works is
sentiment-often verging, however, on sentimen-
talism-and this also, like his delicacy in details,
was accordant with the taste prevalent in his
time, and was the chief cause of his popularity, as
When judged by the sterner prin
of his errors.
ciples of antique sculpture, the works of C. are
found deficient in that objective or realistic character
which Thorwaldsen could express so well.

During his leisure hours C. amused himself in
painting, in which he attained such a degree of
excellence in following the colouring of the
Venetian masters, that his pictures have even
deceived connoisseurs. In his private life, C. was
a very amiable and benevolent man. Biographies
of C. have been written by Missirini (4 vols. Prato,
1824), Cicognara (Venice, 1823), and Rosini (Pisa,
1825).

CANO'SSA, a town of Northern Italy, in the province of Reggio, about 12 m. S.W. of the city of Reggio, celebrated as the place where, in 1077, the Emperor Henri IV. of Germany obtained absolution from Pope Gregory VII., after three days' humiliation. The place, formerly of some importance, is now deserted. new CANO'VA, ANTONIO, the founder of a school of Italian sculpture, was born, November 1, 1757, at Possagno, a village in the Venetian territory. Having displayed in boyhood great talent in modelling, the artist gained the patronage of Giovanni Faliero, a Venetian senator, by whom CANROBERT, FRANÇOIS CERTAIN, DE, Marshal he was sent to work under a sculptor at Bassano. His first imaginative performance, Eurydice,' half the size of life, was executed in his 17th year. of France, born in 1809, studied in the military After this he went to Venice, where his study school of St Cyr, and in 1828 entered the army. In of art properly began. In 1779, Faliero sent him 1835 he sailed for Algeria, and during the war in to Rome, with an introduction to Cav. Zuliano, the province of Oran was made a captain. In the the Venetian ambassador, and one of the most storming of Constantine, he was one of the first who illustrious patrons of art at this time in Italy; entered the breach, when he received a wound in In Rome the first result of his studies appeared the leg. About the same time he had the decora in the statue of Apollo,' which must be regarded tion of the Legion of Honour conferred upon him. as his earliest effort in ideal sculpture; but a In 1846 he became lieutenant-colonel, and soon after far greater progress toward the pure style of the colonel. In 1848 he had the command of an expeantique was evident in his next work, 'Theseus dition against the tribes of the Bouaoun, whom he with the Centaur.' Nevertheless, C. did not rigor- defeated at the Pass of Djerma, and was victorious ously adhere to the severe simplicity of the antique, against the Kabyles. As general of brigade, in 1850 but rather took pains to mitigate it by a peculiar he led an expedition through the rocky country of grace and loveliness of his own, such as charac- Narah, and destroyed the Arab stronghold there. terised his group of Cupid and Psyche,' which In January 1853, he became a general of division. was produced soon after he had completed the He had the command of the first division of the monument of Pope Clement XIV. This is apparent French army under Marshal St Arnaud, sent to even in the colossal monument of Clement XIII. the Crimea in 1854; and at the battle of the (erected in St Peter's, 1792); though this work, on Alma, was wounded in the breast and hand by the the whole, is a magnificent effort of genius, simple splinter of a shell. On the death of the marshal, in style, and with nothing overwrought in the C. took the chief command of the French army. figures. Among his other works may be noticed In the war in Italy against the Austrians, in 1859, aWinged Cupid,' 'Venus and Adonis,' a Psyche C. had the command of the third division of the holding a Butterfly; Penitent Magdalen,' in life. French army; and at the battle of Magenta, June 4, size; Hercules hurling Lichas from the rock,' his corps d'armée turned the left of the Austrians. a colossal work, but not free from affectation; In the great battle of Solferino, on the 24th of Kreugas and Damoxenos' (two pugilists), Pala; the same month, his division was hotly engaged, medes, and Perseus with the head of the Medusa,' and lost 1000 men in killed and wounded. a work which, more than all previous efforts, served 1860, he married Miss Macdonald, a Scotch lady. to raise his fame. In 1802, C. was appointed by When war was declared by France against Prussia, Pope Pius VII. chief curator of all Roman works in 1870, he was one of the generals in command of art in the Papal States; but was soon called at Woerth, where the French received such a away to Paris, to prepare the model of a colossal

statue of Bonaparte.

After the fall of the French empire, C., in 1815, was employed by the Roman government as ambassador to recover the works of art which had been

crushing defeat.

In

C. was shut up in Metz with Marshal Bazaine, and was sent a prisoner into Germany on the capitulation of the fortress.

CA'NSO (Cape), the eastern extremity of Nova taken to Paris, and paid a visit to England. On Scotia, and the southern boundary of the entrance N., and long. 61° W.-2. (Strait), a passage of 17 his return to Rome, he was created Marquis of of Chebucto or Chedabucto Bay. It is in lat. 45° 17′ Ischia, with a pension of 3000 scudi. This money miles in length and 24 in average breadth, connect. he expended in the support of art and artists in Rome. C. died in Venice, 13th October 1822. Aing the inlet just mentioned with the Gulf of St marble statue was erected to his memory in the Lawrence, so as to form an island of Cape Breton. Church de' Frati, 1827. Another monument to C. Of the three channels between that inland sea and used by European vessels. was erected in the library of the capitol, by order the open ocean, it is the one that is least frequently

of Leo XII., in 1833.

It is universally allowed that to C. belongs the

CANT, on shipboard, is a name given to such

571

CANT-CANTEEN.

timbers, near the bow and stern, as lie obliquely to the line of keel. It is also a general term for any. thing sloping, inclined, or turned aside. Canting' is to turn anything over, or out of its proper position.

CANT, ANDREW, a Scottish divine of the 17th c., was first minister of Pitsligo, in the north of Scotland, and afterwards in Aberdeen. In July 1638, he was one of the commissioners sent to that city, to compel the inhabitants to subscribe the National Covenant; and in November of the same year, he was a member of the memorable General Assembly, held at Glasgow, which abolished Episcopacy in Scotland. He was with the Scots army when it obtained possession of Newcastle, August 30, 1640; and in 1641, on the second visit of Charles I. to Scotland, C. preached before his majesty at Edinburgh. In 1660, in consequence of a complaint presented to the magistrates of Aberdeen, charging him with having published a seditious book, entitled Lex Rex, and with fulminating anathemas and imprecations against many of his congregation, C. relinquished his charge and

left the town. He died about 1664.

CANTA'BILE, in Music, is found in several significations. In general, it is placed over passages of easy and flowing melody, as well in instrumental as vocal music. In songs, the melodies which lie chiefly in the middle region of the voice are marked C.: extreme tones of the voice have a peculiar timbre and character quite foreign to the cantabile. C. marked at the beginning of a piece means rather slow than quick. In the C. style the finest effects can be produced by the singer in swelling, sustained sound, the portamento, &c. C. is also called

contilene.

CANTA'BRI, a rude race of mountaineers in ancient Spain, were of Iberian origin, and lived in the district now known as Burgos, and on the coasts of the Bay of Biscay, which derived from them its name, Oceanus Cantabricus. The most important of their nine towns were Juliobrica (near the source of the Ebro), Vellica, and Concana. The C. are described as like the Scythians and Thracians in hardihood and martial character, sleeping on the bare earth, enduring extreme pain without a murmur, and, like most savages, leaving agricultural toil to their women. Their bravery was evinced in the Cantabrian war, a six years' contest with the Romans, begun under Augustus, and concluded by Agrippa, 25-19 B. C. Tiberius afterwards stationed garrisons in the towns of the conquered C.; but some portion retreated into their fastnesses among the mountains, where they preserved their independence. They are supposed to be the ancestors of the BASQUES (q. v.).

distinguish the Basque Provinces and Asturias from the sterile central plateau of Spain.

CANTAL, a central department of France, formed out of the south portion of the old province of Auvergne. It has an area of 2090 square miles, and a population, in 1872, of 231,867. See AUVERGNE.

Cantaliver.

CA'NTALIVER, or CA'NTLIVER, a large bracket used in architecture for supporting cornices, balconies, and even stairs. Cantalivers are often highly ornamented. The accompanying example is from a stair at the corner of Randolph Crescent, Edinburgh. CANTARINI, SIMONE, also known as SIMONE DA PESARO or IL PESARESE, an Italian painter, was born at Pesaro in 1612. He studied under Guido Reni at Bologna; but his intolerable arroance made him numerous enemies, and in consequence he left the city, and went to Rome, where he won a high reputation, and was thought by many to excel even his master in the graceful finish of his brush. On his return to Bologna, he opened a school, but shortly after accepted an invitation from the Duke of Mantua to visit that city. Here also his excessive self-esteem involved him in disagreeable relations with everybody, and at last he quarrelled with the duke himself, on which he left for Verona, where he died in 1648, under suspicion either of having poisoned himself, or of having been poisoned by a Mantuan painter whom he had injured. C. was distinguished in modelling and flesh-colouring. A Madonna upborne by Angels,' and a head of Guido when old, in the gallery at Bologna; and others elsewhere, remain as proofs of his skill. His thirty-seven etchings closely resemble the etchings of Guido Reni, and have, in several instances, been fraudulently sold with the mark of this master forged upon them.

CANTATA, in Music, is a name given to a vocal composition; but it is so very indefinite, that it in no way shews in what respect such composition differs from any other. In Zedler of Halle's great Lexicon, the C. is defined as a long vocal composi tion, the text of which is Italian,' &c.; while in Sulzer's Theorie der Schönen Künste, it is said to be a short piece of vocal music of a pathetic nature,' &c. The C. is always more extended and wrought out than the simple song, and consists of different movements.

CANTEE'N, is a refreshment-house in a barrack, for the use of the soldiers. The chief articles of food are supplied to the troops direct by the governCANTA'BRIAN MOUNTAINS, the general ment; but malt liquor, spirits, and small groceryname of the several ranges of coast and boundary wares, the soldier is left to buy for himself; and the mountains, extending along the north coast of C. is, or is intended to be, a shop where he could Spain, from Cape Finisterre, to the southern base of make these purchases economically without the the West Pyrenees, and so dividing the coast dis- necessity of going beyond the precincts of the tricts from the interior elevated plateau of Castile. barrack. Practically, however, they are little more The summits of the mountains here and there reach than beer and spirit shops. One of the officers the lower line of the snow region, with a more twice a week inspects the goods sold at the C., gentle slope on the south side, and forming plateau- and occasionally insists on the price being lowered. districts from 1600 to 2000 feet high on the north, No soldier is obliged to buy anything at the C.; where the slopes are steeper and intersected by coast he may lay out his small sums elsewhere if he rivers, leave in several parts only narrow stripes of prefer. Between the years 1836 and 1845, it was flat coast-land, and running out into the sea form found that, among 112 canteens in the United King several bold promontories. The whole group of dom, the rent and head-money paid varied from mountains is named variously by the people of £4 per annum (one at Guernsey) to £1344 per various localities, and includes the Sierra de Aralar, annum (one at Woolwich); they brought in collec Salvada, Anagňa, Sejos, Albas, and Altuna-all tively to the government about £70,000 annually. more or less wild and romantic, but having those Great intoxication having resulted from the sale of fertile and prosperous trading districts which spirits at the canteens, the War Office prohibited

CANTEEN-CANTERBURY.

The

such sale in 1847; as a consequence, the rents had more popular name to the list of martyrs.
to be lowered to the extent of £20,000 in the offerings at these shrines, especially the last, con-
following year, the cantineers finding their profits tributed greatly to defray the expenses of the magni-
The rent paid was found to be ficent work. William of Sens did not, however, live
much reduced.
injurious to the soldiers, who were charged higher to see its completion. He was succeeded by another
prices within the barrack than without, and who William, an Englishman, and to him we owe the
were thence driven to places where dangerous temp- completion of the existing unique and beautiful
The results of this system choir, terminated by the corona or circular chapel
tations are at hand.
being undeniably bad and demoralising, the War called Becket's Crown. Gervasius, a monk, who
Office now makes the canteen a regimental estab- witnessed the fire of 1174, and has left an account of
lishment, controlled by a committee of officers and it, tells us that the parts of Lanfranc's church which
western towers, the western transepts, and their
In the 14th c., the nave and
sergeants. The profits are applied for the benefit remained in his time were the nave, the central and
of the men of the corps.
eastern chapels.

In French barracks, the C. is a sort of club-room
for the whole regiment. The cantineer is a non-transepts were transformed into the Perpendicular
commissioned officer, who acts merely as an agent Style of that period. The central tower, called
for all, selling the liquors and commodities at prime the Angel Steeple, was carried up (1486-1504)

cost.

CANTEEN, besides its application to a room or building, is a name also given to a vessel used by soldiers to contain whatever beverage may be obtainable on the march or in the field. It is sometimes of tin, sometimes of wood. In the British army, the C. is a wooden vessel, holding about three pints, painted blue, and inscribed with the number or designation of the regiment, battalion, and company to which the soldier belongs.

There is still another use of the word C., as a name for a leathern or wooden chest, divided into compartments, and containing the plate and table-equipage for a military officer when on active

service.

CANTERBURY, a municipal and parliamentary borough, a county by itself, a cathedral city, and seat of the metropolitan see of all England, in East Kent, on the Stour, 56 miles east-south-east of London, on the high road from London to Dover. The distance from London by the South-Eastern Railway is 81 miles; by the London, Chatham, and Dover line, about 60. It stands on a flat between hills of moderate height. It has the aspect of an old town, many of the houses along the high street having gabled ends and projecting fronts. It has little Many are manufacture or traffic. The chief trade is in corn, wool, and hops. Pop. (1871) 20,962. engaged in the hop-grounds. C. returns two members to parliament. It is noted for its brawn. Some remains of the walls (1 mile in circuit and 20 feet high) which formerly surrounded C., and one of the gates, still exist. Near the city wall is a large artificial mound, known as the Dane John (probably Donjon), and connected with this mound is a public garden, laid out in the end of the 18th c., from the top of which is a fine view of the country around. But the great glory of C. is its magnificent

to about double its original height, also in the Perpendicular Style; it is 234 feet high, and 35 feet in diameter. The north-west tower was taken down in 1834; it was 113 feet high, and divided into five stories. The Norman plinth still remains on each side of the nave in the side aisles, and about the transepts outside the west wall, and on portions of Norman ashlaring may still be seen the east piers of the great tower. The indiscriminate use of the 'Round' or 'Norman,' and the 'Pointed' or Early English' arch, is also a very striking feature in the eastern part of the building. The 1468; the roof is a fan-vault. The north transept Lady Chapel, now called the Dean's Chapel, stands on the north side of the church, and was built in is called the Martyrdom, for here took place the murder of Becket, on Tuesday, December 29, 1170. About the year Fifty years later, his remains were translated from the crypt to a shrine in the newly erected Trinity Chapel, eastward of the choir. 1500, the yearly offerings at this shrine amounted to £4000; but they had then declined much in value. A curious mosaic pavement still remains in front of the place where the shrine stood, and the stone steps which lead up to it are worn by the knees of countless pilgrims; but the shrine itself was demolished in 1538, and the bones of the saint ing was further purified,' as it was called, by order Still very many most interesting burned by order of Henry VIII. In 1643, the buildof parliament. monuments remain-such as the tombs of Stephen Langton; that which is commonly, but wrongly, supposed to be the tomb of Archbishop Theobald; with those of the Black Prince, of Henry IV., of Archbishops Maphan, Peckham, Chicheley, Courtenay, Sudbury, Stratford, Kemp, Bourchier, Warham, and of Cardinal Pole. The total exterior at the eastern transept. The crypt is of greater length of the cathedral is 545 feet, by 156 in breadth Cathedral. When St Augustine became Arch-extent and loftier-owing to the choir being raised bishop of Canterbury, 597 A. D., he consecrated, by numerous steps at the east end-than any other under the name Christ's Church, a church said in England. to have been formerly used by Roman Christians. Cuthbert, the 11th archbishop, 740 A.D., added a church to the east of this. In the course of ages, it received numerous additions, until it assumed its present magnificent form. Among those who helped to repair, enlarge, and rebuild it, were Archbishops Odo (940 A.D.), Lanfranc (1070), and Anselm (1093). In 1174 the choir was destroyed by fire, and in order to the rebuilding of it, a number of French and English artificers were summoned. Among the former was a certain William of Sens, and to him, a man of real genius, the work was intrusted. The church was rich in relics: Plegemund had brought hither the body of the martyr Blasius from Rome; there were the relics of St Wilfred, St Dunstan, and St Elfege; the murder of Thomas Becket (q. v.) had recently added a still

He The Archbishop of C. is primate of all England, metropolitan, and first peer of the realm. Among his ranks next to royalty, and crowns the sovereign. His ecclesiastical province includes all England, His seats are at Lambeth and except the six northern counties. privileges, he can confer degrees in divinity, law, and medicine. Addington Park. He is patron of 149 livings, and has an income of £15,000 a year. There are fourteen old churches in C., mostly of rough flint, and containing fragments of still older structures. St Martin's Church stands on the site of one of the 7th c., and is partly built of ancient Roman brick_and tile. Attached to the cathedral is a grammar school, remodelled by Henry VIII. Part of St Augustine's Benedictine Abbey still remains, with its fine gateway, near the cathedral. It occupied, with its

573