CANNIBAL-CANNING. who are of an extremely degraded type, feed on worms and herbs, and have only been known in casual and exceptional conditions to feed on human flesh. The New Zealanders, on the other hand, who are the most highly developed aboriginal race with which late European civilisation has had to compete, were, down to a late period, systematic feeders on human flesh, despising the inefficient food which satisfied the natives of Australia. In Angas's New Zealand Illustrated, there is a picture of the country mansion of the accomplished chief Rangihaeta, one of the finest specimens,' says the author, of elaborately_ornamented dwellings yet extant.' Its name is Kai Tangata, which means, Eat man; and it had been so called in pleasing memorial of the feasts held within its walls. It has been supposed that the reason why, among the Jews and several eastern nations, the eating of swine's flesh was forbidden as an unclean food, was its resemblance to human flesh, and the danger that persons accustomed to the one might not retain their abhorrence of the other. In the Crusades, the Saracens charged their Christian enemies with eating unclean food, including flesh of men and of swine. In the old romance of Richard Coeur de Lion, he is represented, on recovering from sickness, as longing for a piece of pork; but that not being procurable, a piece of a Saracen's head was substituted for it, and pronounced by him to be infinitely more palatable. There have been many sad instances where people who naturally had a horror of such food, have been driven by starvation to eat human flesh-as in sieges and shipwrecks. Besides these instances, however, and the systematic cannibals, there is no doubt that people not otherwise habituated to the practice, have been excited by ferocity and revenge to eat, and with relish, the flesh of enemies. In many of the cannibal countries, only the flesh of enemies is consumed. As an instance that this is a natural development of ferocity in degraded natures, we may take the fate of the Princess Lamballe in the French Revolution, whose heart was plucked out by one of the savages of the mob, taken to a restaurant, and there cooked and eaten by him. The great Highland chief, Sir Ewen Cameron of Locheil, in a death-struggle with an English trooper, killed him by biting a piece out of his throat, and used to say it was the sweetest morsel he had ever tasted. against Mr Tierney's motion regarding peace with the French Directory, the latter of which, especially, was regarded as a master-piece of eloquence, alike by the House and the country. În the debates on the Habeas Corpus Suspension Act, the union with Ireland, and other important questions, C. gave valuable assistance to the ministry, not only by his voice in parliament, but by his pen in a satirical paper, called the Anti-Jacobin, in which he especially lashed the New Philosophy,' as it was called, promulgated by the French republicans. The Knife Grinder is one of the best known and happiest of his efforts in this line. In 1801, Pitt resigned office, and C. joined the opposition against the Addington ministry. When Pitt again became premier in 1804, C. was made treasurer of the navy, an office which he held until Pitt's death in 1806. His opposition to the short-lived Grenville ministry which succeeded, savoured of the bitterness of party feeling, and his treatment of Fox in his last days, and of his memory after his death, was far from generous. When the Portland ministry was formed in 1807, C. was appointed Minister for Foreign Affairs, a position for which he was specially qualified, and his dispatches, written at this time, are models of manliness and lucidity. In 1812 all his eloquence was enlisted in favour of Catholic emancipation. During the same year he was elected for Liverpool, for which he was again returned three successive times. In 1814 he went as ambassador to Lisbon, returned in 1816, and was made President of the Board of Control, and supported the Liverpool ministry in all their arbitrary and repressive measures until 1820, when he resigned, in consequence of the action of the government against Queen Caroline. Nominated Governor-general of India in 1822, he was on the eve of departure when the suicide of the Marquis of Londonderry called him to the head of Foreign Affairs. In this capacity, C. conferred lasting benefits on his country. He infused a more liberal spirit into the cabinet, he asserted the independence of British politics against the diplomacy that would have entangled the nation with the Holy Alliance, and gave a new direction and impetus to commercial affairs by a gradual laying aside of the prohibitive system. He arranged the relations of Brazil and Portugal; drew the French cabinet into agreement with the British respecting Spanish American CANNING, GEORGE, a distinguished British affairs; was the first to recognise the free states of statesman and orator, was born in London, April Spanish America; promoted the treaty combining 11, 1770. His father, who was descended from an England, France, and Russia, for a settlement of the ancient family, incurred the displeasure of his affairs of Greece, and which was signed July 6, relatives for marrying beneath his station, and died 1827; protected Portugal from Spanish invasion; in poverty when his son was only a year old. His contended earnestly for Catholic emancipation; and mother (who for a subsistence tried the stage, with prepared the way for a repeal of the corn-laws. but little success, married an actor, and subse. In February 1827, a stroke of paralysis forced the quently a linen-draper) lived to rejoice in the success Earl of Liverpool to resign, and Mr C. was called and participate in the good-fortune of her boy, upon to form a new administration. His health, whose education was liberally provided by an uncle. however, gave way under the cares of office, and he C. was first educated at Eton, from which he died 8th August of the same year. His remains passed, at the age of 17, to Christ's Church College, were interred in Westminster Abbey, near those of Oxford, where he greatly distinguished himself, Pitt. As a parliamentary orator, C. holds a promiespecially in classics. While here, he cultivated the nent place in British annals. His acuteness of mind, friendship of the Hon. Charles Jenkinson (after-power of expression, and well-pointed wit, were wards Lord Liverpool), who was of considerable remarkable; but, on the whole, he was inferior service to him in after-life. From Oxford he went to Pitt, Burke, and Fox. He lacked the imposing to Lincoln's Inn, but on the suggestion of Burke, as characteristics of the first, the overpowering enthuit is said, he soon relinquished the bar for a parlia-siasm of the second, and the winning address of the mentary career. He entered the House for New- last. He was intensely British, and his foreign port, Isle of Wight, in 1793, as the protégé and policy was of the character best calculated to supporter of the minister, Pitt. In 1796, he was promote British interests. appointed an under-secretary of state. It was not, however, until 1798 that C. made a reputation as an orator and a statesman, by his speeches in favour of the abolition of the slave-trade, and His speeches have been reprinted in 6 vols. 8vo, by Therry, and several memoirs, including one by his private secretary, Mr Stapleton, have been published. CANNING-CANNON. CANNING, CHARLES JOHN, VISCOUNT, second son of the above statesman, was born December 1812. Educated at Eton and Oxford, he succeeded to the peerage as Viscount C. on his mother's death in 1837, his elder brother, who was a captain in the navy, having been drowned at Madeira in 1828. In 1841 he became Under-secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in Sir Robert Peel's government, and afterwards Commissioner of Woods and Forests. When Lord Aberdeen came into office, he was made Postmaster-general; and in the beginning of 1856, he succeeded Lord Dalhousie as Governor-general of India. His conduct during the awful crisis of the Indian mutiny was decried at the time by many as weak and pusillanimous; but the general opinion now, when all the circumstances of the case are better known, is that he acted with singular courage, moderation, and judiciousness. He died in London, 17th June 1862. CANNING, SIR STRATFORD. See STRATFORD DE REDCLIFFE, VISCOUNT. CA'NNON, is a general name for large pieces of ordnance or artillery, as distinguished from those pieces which can be held in the hand while being fired. No military weapon in use before the invention of gunpowder can fairly come under this designation; they were more generally of the kinds ordnance in use in the British service, prior to the introduction of rifled guns: Kind. described under BALISTA. At what exact date C. Long Iron Guns, { Name. 12 inch, 10 12 8 4 10 9 8 8 32-pounders, 6.4 9 24 " 5-8 9 18 " 5.3 9 12 far as is known, was the Bejapoor cast-iron gun, Iron Carronades, 'Malické Meidan,' or 'Lord of the Plain,' made either by Aurungzebe or by the Mahrattas; it was 14 feet long, 28 inches bore, and required a ball of 1600 lbs. weight. From the time of the great European wars in that century, C. have undergone Brass Mortars, vast improvements, as well as the science and art of artillery necessary for their management. Major Straith, a leading authority on this matter, gives the following tabular view of the chief kinds of the novelties introduced within the last few years It must be borne in mind, however, that many of CANNON-CANNON-BALL TREE. are not here included. Nevertheless the table will or brass; if cast, whether cast hollow or solid; be useful for occasional reference. The apparent whether to be made for breech-loading or for inconsistencies in length and weight are due to the muzzle-loading; whether for smooth bore or rifled great differences in thickness of metal; and if we bore-these are points on which elaborate and were to go beyond the limits of the table, we should costly experiments are being made. Some of the find that, during half a century, iron 32-pounders results will be noticed under the particular kinds of have varied from 63 down to so low as 25 cwt., ordnance to which they more especially relate. and 24-pounders from 50 to 33 cwt.; in each case the length and weight varying, while the calibre remained constant. In the above table, the calibre is not always precisely the same for the same weight of ball; as instanced by the 32-pounders, which have 6-2, 6-3, and 64 inches calibre; this is due to the fact that some guns have more windage, or space round the ball, than others. In England, during the last few years, great expense has been incurred in replacing old C. by others of larger power and calibre; while the French are gradually bringing about a limitation in the number of kinds and sizes, for the sake of simplicity. When the earlier guns, made of hooped bars, were superseded by cast guns, the latter were always cast hollow; but a French founder, in 1749, discovered a mode of boring guns cast solid. Ever since that time, cannon have been more frequently cast solid than hollow, under a belief that the texture of the metal is rendered closer by this arrangement. This, as well as many other questions relating to the manufacture of large ordnance, is at the present day undergoing reconsideration. British iron cannon were wholly made by contract until 1855, mostly at the great works in Yorkshire and Staffordshire, and at Carron in Scotland; but a large factory has been established within the arsenal at Woolwich, and the government has to some extent acquired the power of lowering the price and expediting the supply. The casting does masses of iron-work. There is a central pattern or exterior casting-box, or jacket of iron; and there is model of well-seasoned wood, or of iron; there is an (q. v.), consisting of about 90 parts of copper to a mass of well-compacted sand and clay, or sand about 10 parts of tin. In the casting of small C., and coke-dust, in the annular space between the such as 8-pounders, the alloy used contained 924 annulus of sand are built up piecemeal, so that the pattern and the jacket. The jacket and the parts of copper to 7 parts of tin; while in the mould shall be vertical in the casting-pit, with larger C. the tin was increased until the proportion the muzzle upwards. At Woolwich there are This being merely a general or collective notice of all kinds of C. as a class, particulars concerning each kind will be found under such headings as ARMSTRONG GUN, CARRONADE, GUN, HOWITZER, not differ much in detail from that of other large LANCASTER GUN, MORTAR, SHELL GUN, &c. CANNON, Alloys for. The material formerly used for the manufacture of ordnance was Bronze reached 88 to 12. The presence of the tin increased the hardness of the alloy, but this was obtained at furnaces, each of which would contain molten metal the expense of the tenacity. Great care must be enough for a large gun, such as a 68-pounder; but taken to insure the purity of the copper and the tin. it is deemed better to melt in several furnaces for If lead is present, the alloy is always more or less the larger castings, and to let the streams flow together into the mould. An additional mass of soft, and, moreover, liable to fuse after repeated iron is left at the top, to compress the metal of the explosions; while the presence of a mere trace of sulphur, arsenic, phosphorus, &c., renders the alloy After a due length of time for cooling, the jacket cannon by its weight when in the liquid state. very brittle. It was customary, in the casting of C., is opened and removed, the annulus of sand is to use up old C. or other bronze implements, so as to knocked off, and the cannon is bored within and form a beginning of the fused metal in the furnace, turned without, until the proper degree of smoothand then to add little by little the extra amount ness is attained. In boring, according to some of copper and tin. This mode of procedure was plans, the gun revolves, while the cutter is stationfollowed, owing to the difficulty found in getting ary; in others, the cutter revolves, while the gun is copper and tin to amalgamate readily, so as to yield stationary. The cutter is a strong sharp steel tool an alloy of uniform composition. This point is of at the end of a long bar; and a train of mechanism great importance in the casting of ordnance, as drives it onwards as fast as the bore is made. If the metals, when not properly alloyed, are liable to the gun be cast hollow, the boring is only a kind of separate during cooling, and yield a C. of variable scraping of the interior; but if solid, the whole composition throughout. With the exception of calibre is formed by a long-continued action of the small steel mountain guns, all British cannon are cutter, which brings off the metal in fine fragments. made (1874) of wrought-iron. CANNON FOUNDING is a very important manufacture, requiring a careful application of metallurgic processes. In 1856, the government invited iron smelters to send specimens of iron to the Royal Gun Factory at Woolwich, to test the capabilities of English metal for the manufacture of good guns. After three years of almost incessant experiments, it was announced, in 1859, that Netherton and Parkhead iron from Staffordshire, Bowling iron from Yorkshire, Blaenavon iron from Monmouthshire, and some other kinds, possess as many good qualities for the purpose as any foreign iron whatever-a decision which was as unexpected as it was welcome. All the brass guns for British service were made by the government at Woolwich. The metal is in reality bronze, not brass (see preceding article). The general processes are similar to those for iron ordnance, with modifications depending partly on the smaller size of the guns, and partly on the characteristics of the metal. In France, brass guns were always used much more largely than in England; they are lighter, stronger, and more durable than those of iron; and it has been a question largely discussed among military men, whether brass guns are or are not worth the greatly increased cost which they involve. They are no longer manufactured for the British army. See RIFLED ARMS. Certain peculiarities in the manufacture of special Many important questions have been practically kinds of ordnance are noticed in the articles relating settled during the last 15 years concerning the to them. See WAR-SERVICES in SUPP., Vol. X. manufacture of large ordnance. Whether cast-iron, CA'NNON-BALL TREE (Couroupita Guianor wrought-iron bars bound together with iron-ensis), a tree of the natural order Lecythidaceae, a hoops; whether iron, or steel; whether steel out- native of Guiana, of great size, the trunk being side of iron, or iron outside of steel; whether iron often more than two feet in diameter. It has large CANNSTADT-CANON. ovate-oblong leaves; the flowers are produced in racemes, they are white and rose-coloured; and the fruit is large, about the size of a 36-pound shot,' nearly round. The hard woody shell of this fruit is used for drinking-vessels. In the opinion of Fuseli, he excelled all his contemporaries except Velasquez. His eminence in the three departments of the fine arts-sculpture, painting, and architecture-obtained for him the hyperbolical honour of being called the Michael Angelo of CANNSTADT, a town of Würtemberg, beauti. Spain. His pictures, marked by graceful design and fully situated on the Neckar, about 3 miles north-pleasing colouring, are very numerous, and are preeast of Stuttgart. It owes its origin to the Romans, of whose presence there are still found many traces. It has numerous mineral springs, discharging 800,000 cubic feet of water in the 24 hours, which are much frequented during the season; manufactures of woollens, cottons, tobacco, &c.; and a large trade by means of the Neckar. Pop. (1871) 11,804. CA'NO, ALONSO, an illustrious Spanish painter, the founder of the School of Granada, in which city he was born, March 1601. He received his first instructions in the principles of art from his father, Miguel Cano, who was an architect; studied sculpture under J. Montanes, and painting under Pacheco and Juan de Castillo; and attained celebrity so early, that, in 1638 or 1639, he was appointed court painter and architect to the king. C. was of a hasty temper, and was accused of having murdered his wife in a fit of violent jealousy, but the accusation appears to have been quite groundless. He was, however, subjected to the torture; but no confession having been elicited, he was acquitted and received again into the royal favour, named residentiary of Granada, and spent his last years in acts of devotion and charity. He died at Granada in 1664 or 1667. served in Granada, Seville, Madrid, Malaga, and other Spanish cities. CANOE' is a boat made of a hollowed trunk of a tree, or of the bark shaped and strengthened. Canoes have been made large enough to carry twenty or thirty hogsheads of sugar. Some have decks, and carry sail of rush or silk-grass; but they are generally open boats, rowed by paddles, and steered by an oar. They are seldom wide enough for two men to sit abreast, but vary greatly in length. Near sea-coasts, canoes are often made of light woodenframes, covered with seal-skins, which are also drawn across as a deck, with only a hole left for one man to sit in. In the Hudson's Bay Territories, canoes are used which are light enough to be carried over the portages, or portions of river too shallow for navigation. Canoes, hollowed out of the trunks of oaks, seem to have been in use among the early inhabitants of the British Islands. They have been dug up in considerable numbers in England, Scotland, and Ireland. They appear to have been chiefly of two sorts-one about 10 feet long, with square ends, and projecting handles; the other, about 20 feet long, sometimes sharp at both ends, sometimes round at the prow and square at ANCIENT CANOE. Side View. Foreshortened View, shewing the End. the 4th c. to cenobites living under a common rule; but the office of C. is supposed to have been first instituted by Chrodegand, or Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz, in 763. It is at least certain that he was the author of the oldest canonical rule, which was simply an adaptation of the monastic rule (commonly but erroneously attributed to St Augustine) to the priests and clerks' specially the stern. The accompanying wood-cut shews one | not precisely true, for the term C. was applied in of this last variety, dug out of a marsh in Sussex. CA'NON, a word originally Greek, and signifying a measuring-rod (see CANOE-foot-note), applied in various arts and sciences to what serves for a rule or standard, but particularly employed to designate collectively those books which constitute the Holy Scripture, and are accepted by Christians as a rule of faith. See BIBLE. In ecclesiastical language, the word canon signifies, besides, not only a church-precept, but also the decree of a universal council, which is held valid as law. See CANON LAW. At one period the word was used to designate the prayers which the Roman Catholic priests said before, at, and after the consecration of the Host; the term is also employed to denote the catalogue or register of Catholic saints. CANON, an ecclesiastical dignitary, so called as living under a rule, or as following the rule or canon of divine service. His office is of no great antiquity. According to Paschier, the name was not known before Charlemagne. This, however, is *The word is sometimes said to have been borrowed by the Spaniards from the native Indian name of such boats. But a similar name exists in the Aryan languages: Ger. kahn, a boat; Old Fr. cane, a ship, and canot, a boat. The root of these words is the same as that of cane (Lat. canna), a reed or hollow stem, and signifies hollowness, capacity; Gr. chaino, to gape or yawn. From the same root come cann, a drinkingbeing an augmentative from canna, a hollow stem or cup; cannon (Ital. cannone, properly a large tube, tube); canon (Gr.), a ruler or straight rod, most readily obtained from a joint of a reed; canal (Lat. canalis, a pipe or conduit). 567 CANON-CANON LAW. attached to the service of a cathedral or other at the end of the 12th century. 2. The Decretals. church. It enjoined on the canons manual labour, They are a collection of canonical epistles, in five the practice of silence at certain times, confession books, written by popes alone, or assisted by some twice a year, and other duties needless to specify. cardinals, to determine any controversy, and first The canons formed the council of the bishop, and published about the year 1230, by Raimundus assisted him in the government of his diocese. Barcinus. They lay down rules respecting the They lived in a house called a monastery, slept in a lives and conversation of the clergy, matrimony common room, ate at the same table, and were and divorces, inquisition of criminal matters, purgaoriginally supported out of the episcopal revenues. tion, penance, excommunication, and other matters In 816, Louis le Débonnaire induced the Council deemed to be within the cognizance of the ecclesiasof Aix-la-Chapelle to draw up a general rule for tical courts. To these five books of Gregory, Bonithe whole body of canons. Canons found their way face VIII. added a sixth, published 1298 A. D., not long afterwards into England, Scotland, and called Sextus Decretalium, or the Sext, which is itself Ireland. Various reforms of Č. were made in the divided into five books, and forms a supplement 11th and beginning of the 12th century. Gradually, to the work of Barcinus, of which it follows the however, many began to emancipate themselves arrangement. The Sext consists of decisions profrom the restrictions of monastic life, and to live mulgated after the pontificate of Gregory IX. Then independent of any rule, which is not at all sur- there came the Clementines, which were constituprising, for the canons were wont to keep apart from tions of Pope Clement V., published 1308 A. D. the lower clergy,' as they called parish priests These decretals form the principal portion of the and others who really laboured to impart religious canon law. John Andreas, a celebrated canonist in instruction. They were often of noble families, the 14th c., wrote a commentary on them, which he loved titles at Lyon, they were called counts-and entitled Novella, from a very beautiful daughter he in general were men of the world rather than true had of that name, whom he bred a scholar; the churchmen. Some of these reformed or remodelled father being a professor of law at Bologna, had Canons were called Black Canons, from wearing instructed his daughter so well in it, that she a black cassock; others, White Canons, from wear-assisted him in reading lectures to his scholars, and ing a white habit like the Præmonstratenses of Picardy in France. The class of secular canons, whose manner of life was not conventual, and who therefore escaped destruction in England when the monasteries were abolished by Henry VIII., probably originated in a tendency to relax the severity of rule enjoined on the regulars, which indeed was hardly less stringent than in the case of ordinary monks. Secular canons still exist in the Anglican Church, and their duties-making allowance for the difference between the Roman Catholic and Protestant religions are much the same in kind as they were before the Reformation. See CATHEDRAL. CANON, in Music, a kind of fugue in which not merely a certain period or phrase is to be imitated or answered, but the whole of the first part with which the C. begins is imitated throughout by all the other parts. As in fugues, the melody of the part to be imitated is called the subject, and the others its reply. The C. is the highest degree of mechanical musical contrivance. The ancients spent more time in the construction and resolving of mere puzzling and unentertaining canons, than in the cultivation of good harmony and melody. Good canons, however, are always interesting, and different from any other composition. For a full treatment of writing a C., see Marpurg's Abhandlung von der Fuge, published by Peters, Leipzig. CANON LAW is a collection of ecclesiastical constitutions for the government and regulation of the Roman Catholic Church, although many of its regulations have been admitted into the ecclesiastical system of the Church of England, and still influence other Protestant bodies. It was compiled from the opinions of the ancient Latin Fathers, the decrees of general councils, and the decretal epistles and bulls of the Holy See. These, from a state of disorder and confusion, were gradually reduced into method, and may be briefly described in the following chronological order: 1. Gratian's Decree, which was a collection of ordinances, in three books, commenced by Ivo, Bishop of Chartres, 1114 A. D., and subsequently corrected and arranged by Gratian, a Benedictine monk, in the year 1150, after the manner of Justinian's Pandects of the Roman Law. This work comprises ecclesiastical legislation, as it may be called, from the time of Constantine the Great, at the beginning of the 4th, to that of Pope Alexander III., therefore, to perpetuate her memory, he gave that book the title of Novella. 3. The Extravagants of John XXII, and other later popes, by which term is meant to be denoted documents which transcend the limits of a particular collection of regulations. These books, viz., Gratian's Decree, the Decretals, and the Extravagants, together form the Corpus Juris Canonici, or great body of the 'canon law,' as formerly received and administered by the Church of Rome. There are, however, other publications of a later period, of more or less authority, but which do not appear to have received the formal sanction of the Holy See. This C. L., borrowing from the Roman civil law many of its principles and rules of proceeding, has at different times undergone careful revision and the most learned and scientific treatment at the hands of its professors, and was very generally received in those Christian states which acknowecclesiastical law more or less to Roman Catholic ledge the supremacy of the pope; and it still gives countries been considerably modified by the conChristendom, although its provisions have in many cordats (q. v.) which the popes now and then find it expedient to enter into with Roman Catholic sovereigns and governments, whose municipal system integrity. Indeed, the fact of its main object being does not admit of the application of the C. L. in its to establish the supremacy of the ecclesiastical authority over the temporal power, is sufficient to explain why, in modern times, it is found to conflict with the views of public law and government, even in the case of the most absolute and despotic governments. This ecclesiastical system, however, never obtained a firm footing in England, and the great lawyers and statesmen have always shewn not only an unwillingness to defer to its authority, but even an aversion to its rule. There was, however, a kind of national C. L. in England, composed of legative and provincial constitutions, adapted to the particular necessities of the English Church. The legative constitutions were ecclesiastical laws, enacted in national synods, held under the Cardinals Otho and Othobon, legates from Pope Gregory IX. and Pope Clement IV., in the reign of King Henry III., about the years 1220 and 1268. The provincial constitutions are principally the decrees of provincial synods, held under divers archbishops of Canterbury, from Stephen |