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CANDIA-CANDLE

tree, and from the capital of the former, or the branches of the latter, lamps were suspended, as in the accompanying illustration, which we copy from Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. The C., in this instance, including the stand, is only three feet high. From the size of the stand in proportion to the rest of the C., it would seem to have been used for some other purpose.

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CANDIDATE (Lat. candidatus). Among the Romans, a suitor for the office of consul, quæstor, prætor, &c., was named C. because, in appearing before the people, he wore a white (candida) toga without a tunic. His dress was chosen partly as an ostentation of humility, and partly as it served to commonly lasted two years: in the first year, the display wounds received in battle. The candidature CA'NDIA, in Turkish, KIRID,' called in the C. was proved by the senate, whose decision, if most ancient times Idea, afterwards Crete, one of favourable, was ratified by the popular assemblies; During this period occurred the the largest islands of the Mediterranean, is situated and, in the second, his name was entered in the list at the entrance of the Archipelago, in long. 23° 40' of candidates. -26° 40′ E., lat. 34° 50′-35° 55′ N. It is very ambitio, or canvassing of voters, which often gave irregular in form, its length being about 160 miles, occasion to enormous bribery, in spite of the severe and its breadth varying from 6 to 35 miles. The enactments passed to prevent the corruption of the In the early Christian Church, newly baptized history of C. commences with Greek mythology, and electors. The elected C. was styled Designatus. historians and poets say that it was governed by its own kings, among whom were Saturn, Jupiter, converts were styled CANDIDATES, on account of and Minos, 1300 years before Christ. C. was con- the white garments worn during eight days after quered by the Romans under Metellus, who, on that baptism. In modern times, a German probationer account, had the title of Creticus;' on the division or theological student who has been approved before of the empire, it fell to the share of the eastern the highest ecclesiastical authorities, is called a C.; monarchs. In 823 A.D., it was conquered by the but a still broader signification is also attached to Saracens, who built the city of C. on the ruins of the word, an applicant for any office whatever, CA'NDLE, a cylinder of wax or fatty matter, Heraclea. In 1204, it was sold by Pope Boniface religious or secular, being termed a candidate. -to whom Baldwin I. gave it to the Venetians. The Venetians divided the island into four provinces with a wick, intended for giving light. Candles are -Sitia, Candia, Retimo, and Canea. In 1645, the made principally of tallow; also of the solid porTurks besieged Canea, and in 1669 conquered the tion of palm and cocoa nut oils, of bleached wax, 'Dips' are made by stretching a number island, after a war which lasted 24 years, and and of spermaceti. They are either dipped, moulded, a blockade of 13 years-30,985 Christians, and or rolled. 118,754 Turks being killed or wounded in the siege. of wicks upon a suitable frame, so that they may about double the intended thickness of the C.; At present, the island belongs to the Sultan of hang down at a distance from each other equal to Turkey. these are then dipped in a trough of melted tallow, and hung upon a rack until cooled, then dipped again and again, until the required thickness is obtained. The dipper has a number of frames prepared before commencing, and by the time he has dipped the last, the first is cool enough to dip again. The tallow in the trough has to be kept only a little above its melting point, for if it were much hotter, it would melt away a portion of the tallow already on the wick, instead of adding to it. Tallow-candles are much improved by being kept a year or a winter before using.

The island of C. is for the most part mountainous, the mountains being chiefly composed of freestone or of marble, which is either gray or white. Towards the south side of the western part of the island, there is a chain of high mountains, extending in length about 37 miles, which, from their appearing white, especially at their west end, were anciently called Leuci. Mount Ida, now called by the natives Upsilorites, is one in a chain of mountains extending to the north-west of the island almost to Retimo; the mountain is of gray marble, and the surface loose stones: there is no verdure on it except a few small shrubs. Jupiter is said to have passed great part of his youth amongst these mountains in the exercise of hunting and drawing the bow.

The island abounds in springs and fountains, which are found even by the sea-side; most of the rivers are dry in summer, but in winter many of them are very dangerous torrents. The island does not produce any minerals of importance. The soil of C. is fertile, and produces wheat in abundance. exports, which consist chiefly of oil, wool, linseed, and fruit, amount in annual value to above £400,000, and the imports to about £440,000.

The

C. had once, according to Homer in his Odyssey, 90 cities; there are now only 3 principal towns: Megála Kástron or Candia, pop. 12,000, of which 8000 are Christians; Retimo or Rhithymnos, pop. 3200, of which 1500 are Christians; Canea or Khania, pop. 6000, of which 3800 are Christians. The total population of the island does not now number 290,000-less than half its amount at the outbreaking of the Greek revolution in 1821.

The language spoken by both Christians and Moslems in C. is modern Greek. The whole rural population may be said to have a common descent from the Cretans of the middle ages the worldly advantages which used to result from embracing Islamism, induced whole districts to abandon the faith of their forefathers-but a mere change of religious faith was unaccompanied by any change of

Moulds, or mould-candles, are cast by pouring the the wick has been previously fixed. These tubes are tallow down a pewter tube, along the axis of which well polished in the inside, and several are fitted in a frame, the upper part of which forms a trough, into which the moulds all open; and thus by pouring into the trough, all the moulds are filled at once.

Wax-candles are not moulded, on account of the great amount of contraction which wax undergoes the moulds. The wicks are warmed, and suspended in cooling, and the difficulty of drawing it from over a basin of melted wax, which is poured over them until they acquire the proper thickness; they are then rolled, while hot, between two flat pieces of smooth hard wood, kept wetted to prevent adhesion.

Great improvements have recently been made in the manufacture of candles, and these are especially progress of scientific chemistry-of theory applied interesting from being the direct results of the in practice. All oils or fats are composed of one or more fatty acids combined with a base, called glycerine. The fatty acids constitute the combustible and more solid portion of the compound. Both acid and base are very weak, and it is a general law in chemistry, that a strong base, under favourable conditions, will separate a weaker one from the place of the weak base; and a strong acid will its acid, by combining with the acid, and taking

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CANDLEBERRY-CANDLEMAS.

in like manner displace a weaker one. Lime is a strong base, and being cheap, is used to separate the glycerine from the fatty acid of tallow, palm-oil, &c. This it does when the melted fat is stirred for some hours with a mixture of lime and water. The lime forms a hard insoluble soap, by combining with the fatty acid, and the glycerine remains in solution with the water. This lime-soap is then broken to powder; and the weak fatty acid separated by means of sulphuric acid, which combines with the lime, forming sulphate of lime. The whole being heated, the fatty acid floats on the top, is skimmed off, and the candles made from it. These are called composite candles; they give a purer light than ordinary tallow, from being freed from the glycerine, which not only softens the fat, but diminishes its combustibility. Pure stearic acid, or stearine, the chief fatty acid of tallow, is a hard crystalline substance, perfectly dry, and free from any greasiness, with a somewhat pearly lustre. Its crystalline structure presents a difficulty in the manufacture of candles, for when cast in moulds, it contracts on cooling, and leaves small spaces between the crystals. This has been obviated by mixing a little arsenic with it; but this method is now abandoned, on account of the poisonous gas evolved by the combustion of such candles, and the desired effect is obtained by mixing the stearine with a little wax, and pouring it into hot moulds. To obviate the necessity of snuffing candles, several contrivances have been adopted; in all of them, the object is effected by causing the wick to bend over and its end to fall outside of the flame, and thus, by coming in contact with the oxygen of the air, to be completely burned-for such combustion cannot take place within the flame. See FLAME This bending over is variously brought about. One method is by twisting the wick with one strand shorter than the rest, which is strained straight while the candles are being cast; and when released by the melting of a portion, it contracts, and bends the wick. Another method is by adding on one side of the wick a paste, consisting of a mixture of borax, bismuth, flour, and charcoal. Another, by coating one of the threads of the wick with a metallic envelope, by dipping it in fused bismuth; the metal fuses at the end of the burning wick, and forms a small globule, which bends the wick over, and is itself readily combustible at a red heat. These are called metallic wicks. Various other contrivances have been adopted for the same object.

Candles of this improved kind, in which the wick disappears in burning, and that bear a general resemblance to candles of wax, are now manufactured on an extensive scale, the progressive use of gas making apparently little impression on this branch of trade. Price's manufactory of 'patent' candles, as these improved candles usually are called, is perhaps the largest in England. It is situated at Vauxhall, in the neighbourhood of London, and its economic arrangements have attracted not a little public attention.

Candles were early introduced-with symbolical signification-into Christian worship, and are still so employed in the Roman Catholic Church. In the Church of England, candles are sometimes placed on the altar; but the practice is a subject of controversy. The numerous superstitious notions and observances connected with candles and other lights in all countries had a more remote origin, and may be considered as relics of the once universally prevalent worship of the sun and of fire. Numerous omens are taken from them, and they are also used as charms. In Britain, a portion of the tallow rising up against the wick of the candle, is

called a winding-sheet, and regarded as a sure omen of death in the family. A bright spark at the candle denotes that the party directly opposite is to receive a letter. Windy weather is prophesied from the waving of the flame without visible cause, and wet weather if the wick does not light readily. Lights appearing to spring up from the ground, or issue out of a house, and traverse the road or air by invisible agency, the superstitious in Wales and elsewhere call corpse-candles. They are ominous of death, and their route indicates the road the corpse is to be carried for burial. The size and colour of the light tell whether the fated person is young or old. It is or was customary in some places to light a candle, previously blessed, during the time of a woman's travail. C. were supposed to be efficacious after death as well as before birth, for they were placed on the corpse. The object was doubtless to ward off evil spirits, who were supposed to be always on the alert to injure souls on entering and on quitting the world. See also CANDLEMAS.

CA'NDLEBERRY, CANDLEBERRY MYRTLE, WAX TREE, WAX MYRTLE, TALLOW TREE, or BAYBERRY (Myrica cerifera), a small tree or shrub of 4-18 feet high, but generally a low spreading shrub, a native of the United States of America, but most abundant and luxuriant in the south. It belongs to the natural order Amentacea, sub-order Myricea, according to some, a distinct natural order, distinguished by naked flowers, with 1-celled ovary, a drupaceous fruit (stone-fruit)—the scales becoming has male and female flowers on separate plants; fleshy-and a single erect seed. The genus Myrica and the scales of the catkin in both male and female flowers are concave. The C. has evergreen oblongolanceolate leaves, with two small serratures on each side at the point, sprinkled with resinous dots. The bark and leaves when bruised emit a delightful fragrance. The drupes-popularly called berries— are about the size of peppercorns, and when ripe, collected by boiling them and skimming it off, and are covered with a greenish-white wax, which is is afterwards melted and refined. A bushel of berries will yield four or five pounds. It is used smoke, and emit an agreeable balsamic odour, but chiefly for candles, which burn slowly with little do not give a strong light. An excellent scented soap is made from it.-M. Gale is the SWEET GALE of the moors and bogs of Scotland, well known for its delightful fragrance, a native of the whole northern parts of the world. Several species are found at the Cape of Good Hope, one of which, M. cordifolia, made from its berries. bears the name of WAX SHRUB, and candles are

CA'NDLEMAS, in its ecclesiastical meaning, is the feast of the Purification of the Virgin Mary, and is observed on the 2d of February. This festival is very strictly kept by the Roman Catholic Church, there being a procession with many lighted candles, and those required for the service of the ensuing year being also on that occasion consecrated; hence the name Candlemas Day. In Scotland, this day is one of the four term-days appointed for periodical annual payments of money, interest, taxes, &c., and of entry to premises-the three other term-days there being Whitsunday, Lammas, and Martinmas. See TERM

An old document of the time of Henry VIII, preserved in the archives of the Society of Antiquaries, London, concerning the rites and ceremonies in the English Church, speaks thus of the custom of carrying candles: On Candlemas Daye it shall be declared that the bearyinge of candels is done in the memorie of Christe, the spirituall lyghte whom Simeon dyd prophecye ["a light to lighten the

CANDLE-NUT-CANEA.

Gentiles"], as it is redde in the churche that daye.' But an older and heathen origin is ascribed to the practice. The Romans were in the habit of burning candles on this day to the goddess Februa, the mother of Mars; and Pope Sergius, seeing it would be useless to prohibit a practice of so long standing, turned it to Christian account by enjoining a similar offering of candles to the Virgin. The candles were supposed to have the effect of frightening the devil and all evil spirits away from the persons who carried them, or from the houses in which they were placed. An order of council in 1584 prohibited the ceremony in England. There is a tradition in most parts of Europe to the effect that a fine C. portends a severe winter. In Scotland, the prognostication is expressed in the following

distich:

'If Candlemas is fair and clear,

There'll be twa winters in the year.'

Christ's Presentation, the Holiday of St Simeon, and, in the north of England, the Wives' Feast-day, were names given to Candlemas Day. See Brand's Popular Antiquities, Bohn's edition.

CA'NDLE-NUT (Aleurites triloba), a tree of the natural order Euphorbiacea (q. v.), a native of the South Sea Islands, Madagascar, Molucca, Java, &c., which produces a heart-shaped nut with a very hard shell, and a kernel good to eat when roasted, although in a raw state it possesses in a slight degree some of the active properties so common in the Euphorbiaceae, and is apt to cause purging and colic. It is about as large as a walnut. An excellent bland oil is procured from it, used both for food and as a lamp-oil. The inhabitants of the Society Islands after slightly baking these nuts in an oven, and removing the shell, bore holes through the kernels, and string them on rushes, hanging them up in their houses, to be used for torches, which are made by enclosing four or five strings in a leaf of the screw-pine (Pandanus). These torches are often used in fishing by night, and burn with much brilliancy. The lampblack used in tattooing was obtained from the shell of the candle-nut. A gummy substance exudes from the C. tree, which the Tahitians chew.

CANDLESTICK. The ordinary C. is so well known that no description is needed. The most important modern improvement in the C., is a contrivance for maintaining the candle at a uniform height, by means of a spring placed below the candle, and confined in the cylindrical body of the C.; this spring presses the candle upwards with sufficient force to drive it completely out, but for a collar at the top, against which the surface around the wick bears, and thus, as the candle melts, it yields to the pressure of the spring, and maintains a uniform height. The collar, when properly adjusted, also prevents the guttering to which composite candles are liable when exposed to currents of air or moved about.

CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH, D.D., an eminent Scottish divine, was born in Edinburgh in 1806, entered the university of Glasgow in 1822, and was licensed as a preacher in connection with the Established Church in 1828. In 1834 he became minister of St George's, Edinburgh. From this period, his public career may be said to have commenced. With intense zeal, he advocated the justice and necessity of ecclesiastical reforms, and became one of the boldest and most vigorous leaders of the popular or 'non-intrusion' party. After the Disruption (see FREE CHURCH), he co-operated with Dr Chalmers and other chiefs of the newly formed denomination in organising, consolidating,

and extending its aggressive efforts. In 1845-1846, he took an active part in the establishment of the Evangelical Alliance. In 1847, he was, when Dr Chalmers died, appointed to the chair of Divinity, in the New College, Edinburgh, but did not assume the functions of this office. In 1862, he was appointed Principal of the same college. He died Oct. 19, 1873. His best known teachings through the press are Contributions towards the Exposition of the Book of Genesis; The Atonement, its Reality and Extent; An Examination of Mr Maurice's Theological Essays; The Fatherhood of God; and an Exposition of the First Epistle of St John. CA'NDY. See CEYLON.

and Persians over their other garments. It was made of woollen cloth, which was either purple or of some other brilliant colour, and had wide sleeves. In the sculptures at Persepolis, nearly all the personages are represented as so attired. A gown of a very similar kind is still worn by Arabians, Turks, and other orientals.

CA'NDYS (Gr.), a loose gown, worn by the Medes

CANDY-SU'GAR is the popular name applied to ordinary sugar when procured in large crystals by the gradual and slow cooling of a concentrated solution of sugar. See SUGAR.

CANDYTUFT (Ibéris), a genus of plants of the natural order Crucifera, distinguished by unequal petals, the largest being towards the circumference of the dense corymbs in which the flowers grow, and by an emarginate pouch with the valves keeled and winged, the cells one-seeded, and the cotyledons accumbent. See COTYLEDON. The species are chiefly found in the countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, and the name C. is supposed to be derived from that of the island of Candia, the name Iberis from Iberia (Spain). One species, I. amara, remarkable for its bitterness, is a doubtful native of England. Some species are slightly shrubby, some are herbaceous perennials, some annuals. Some are among the most familiar ornaments of our flower-gardens, as the annual White and Purple C. (I. umbellata), the Sweet-scented C. (I. odorata), and two slightly shrubby species, I. sempervirens and I. semperflorens, the latter of which, in favourable situations, continues to blossom throughout the whole winter, and pleases the eye at all seasons, both by the abundance and the perfect whiteness of its flowers.

CANE, or KEN, a river rising in Bundelcund, near lat. 23° 54′ N., and long. 80° 13′ E., and, after a north-north-east course of 230 miles, entering the Jumna in lat. 25° 47' N., and long. 80° 35′ E. It is too rapid and rugged for navigation; and is remarkable for the matchless beauty of its pebbles.

CANE, a term sometimes indiscriminately applied to any small and smooth rod, of the thickness of a walking-stick or less; but more correctly limited to the stems of the smaller palms and the larger grasses. We thus speak of Sugar C., Bamboo C., &c., among the latter; whilst among the former, this name is particularly appropriated to the species of the genus Calamus, also called Rattan. To this genus belong the canes largely imported from the tropical regions of the east for making bottoms of chairs, couches, &c. See RATTAN.

CANE SUGAR. See SUGAR.

CANE'A, or CA'NNA, called Khania (Tà Chaniá) by the Greeks, is the capital of the island of Candia or Crete, and situated on the northern coast, in lat. 35° 28′ N., and long. 24° 2′ E. It occupies the site of the ancient Cydonia. The present city is of Venetian origin, and dates from 1252 A.D., when a colony was sent from Venice to occupy it. The object of its

CANE-BRAKE-CANIS MINOR.

foundation was to keep down the Greeks, who had been in arms, and at open war with their Italian lords, almost without intermission from the day when the Venetians first set foot on their shores. Venetian coats of arms are still observed over the doorways of some of the principal houses. C. is surrounded by a strong wall and deep ditch, both of which, however, are in a state of great dilapidation; it has a good but very shallow harbour. C. is the principal mart for Candian commerce, and exports to France and Italy, oil, soap, wax, &c. Consuls from all nations are stationed here, and it is the residence of the Turkish governor of Candia, and of the Greek bishop. Pop. about 12,000, of whom two-thirds are native Greeks; the rest mainly Turks. The language spoken is modern Greek. The environs of C. are very beautiful.

CA'NE-BRAKE (Arundinaria macrosperma), a large kind of reed or grass, indigenous to the warmer parts of the United States of North America. It grows in marshy situations. It is of a genus allied to the bamboo. The flowers are in panicles.

CANE'LLA (Canella alba), a small tree common in the West Indies, where it is often called WILD CINNAMON. Its place in the botanical system has not yet been exactly ascertained, but it seems to be allied to Pittosporacea. The fruit is a small black berry. The whole tree is very aromatic, and its flowers are extremely fragrant. The bark of the young branches is the C. Bark of apothecaries, also known in commerce as White-wood Bark, and sometimes called White Cinnamon. It forms a considerable article of export from the Bahamas. It has an aromatic fragrance, regarded as intermediate between that of cinnamon and that of cloves, and a bitterish, acrid, pungent taste. It is employed as a stomachic and stimulant tonic, and as an aromatic addition to tonics or to purgatives, in debilitated conditions of the digestive organs.

CA'NÉS VENA'TICI (Lat. Hunting Dogs), a constellation of the northern hemisphere, added by Helvetius, and known generally as the greyhounds of Helvetius. The dogs are distinguished by the

names of Asterion and Chara. On the celestial globe, they are represented as being held in leash by Bootes, and apparently pursuing Ursa Major (q. v.) round the pole of the heavens.

CANG, CANQUE, or KEA, an instrument of degrading punishment in use in China. It consists of a large wooden collar fitting close round the neck, and the weight of which is usually from 50 to 60 pounds. Over the parts where the C. fastens are pasted slips of paper, on which the mandarin places his seal, so that the culprit may not be relieved until the full term of his sentence has expired, which sometimes extends to 15 days. On the C. is also inscribed, in large letters, the offence and the duration of the punishment. The criminal having been paraded through the streets by the police, is then left exposed in some thoroughfare of the city. As he is incapable of using his hands, he has to be fed during the time he is suffering the penalty.

CA'NGAS DE O'NIS, a town of the Asturias, Spain, about 35 miles east-south-east of Oviedo. It is a poor place, but in its vicinity are one or two interesting monastic structures, and the cave whence the Goths fled and hid themselves, after the battle of Guadalete, in 711, and from which, in 718, they issued, and annihilated the Moorish invaders. Pop. 7000.

CANICATTI, a town of Sicily, in the province of Girgenti, and 15 miles east-north-east of the city of that name. It is situated on the banks of the

Naro, is well built, and has sulphur mines. The inhabitants, above 20,000 in number, are principally engaged in agricultural pursuits.

CANICULAR, CANICULAR DAYS, or DOG-DAYS, CANICULAR YEAR. Canicular was an old name of Canis Minor (q. v.); it was also used to denote Sirius, or the Dog-star, the largest and brightest of all the stars, and which is situated in the mouth of Canis Major (q. v.). From the Heliacal Rising (q. v.) of this star (Sirius), the ancients reckoned their dog-days, or Dies Caniculares, which were 40 in number-20 before, and 20 after the rising of the star. The rising of the dogstar was in ignorance supposed to be the occasion of the extreme heat and the diseases incidental to these days. It was by mere accident that the rising of the star coincided with the hottest season of the year, in the times and countries of the old astronomers. The time of its rising depends on the latitude of the place, and is later and later every year in all latitudes, owing to precession. In time, the star will rise in the dead of winter. The Canicular Year was that known among the Egyptians and Ethiopians. It was computed from one rising of Sirius to the next, and consisted ordinarily of 365 days, and every fourth year of 366. This year was sometimes called the Heliacal Year. The reason for computing the year from the rising of Sirius, seems to have been that, at the time, the heliacal rising coincided with the greatest swelling of the Nile.

CA'NIDE (Lat. canis, a dog), a family of the Digitigrade (q. v.) section of carnivorous mammalia, which, as now generally defined, is less extensive than the Linnæan genus Canis, the hyænas being excluded from it, and referred to the family Viverrida (civets, ichneumons, &c.). These families are, indeed, closely connected, and hyænas may be said to form a connecting-link between them, the dentieither of them to that of the cats or Felida.-The tion, however, making a nearer approach than in C. have two flat tuberculous molar teeth or grinders on each side, behind the great carnivorous cheektooth-the last præmolar -of the upper jaw, a of the bear family, or dentition resembling that Ursidae, to which they exhibit a further resemblance in their power of adapting themselves to the use of vegetable food. Their whole organisation fits them to be less exclusively carnivorous than the feline tribe. They have generally three incisors or cutting teeth, with one large canine tooth, and four præmolars on each side in each jaw, two true molars on each side in the upper jaw, and three in the lower. The true molars are adapted for crushing either bones or vegetable food. The last præmolars in the upper jaw are remarkably large, and particularly adapted for cutting flesh. See DoG, FENNEC, FOX, JACKAL, LYCAON, WOLF, &c.

Dentition of Canidæ.

CA'NIS MAJOR, the Greater Dog, a constellation of the southern hemisphere, below the feet of Orion. It contains Sirius, the brightest of all the stars, and its place may be found by means of this star, which is on the continuation of the line through the belt of Orion. According to Flamsteed, it contains 31 stars.

tion of the southern hemisphere. It is near Canis CA'NIS MINOR, the Lesser Dog, is a constellaMajor, and just below Gemini. Procyon, of the first magnitude, is its principal star, and lies in a direct line between Sirius and Pollux; so that the position of the constellation may be found by means

CANISTER SHOT-CANNIBAL.

of this star. According to Flamsteed, it contains seed, and hooked or spiral embryo. But only two

in all 14 stars.

CA'NISTER SHOT. See CASE SHOT. CA'NKER, a disease of plants, especially fatal to fruit-trees in many gardens. It is a kind of gangrene, usually beginning in the young shoots and branches, and gradually proceeding towards the trunk, killing the tree in the course of a few years. Wet subsoils seem in many cases to induce it, and it begins most readily in shoots that have been imperfectly ripened and injured by frost, or which have received some accidental wound. Those varieties of fruit-trees which have been long propagated by grafting and budding are most liable to it. It is sometimes cured by heading down the tree, and causing it to throw out new branches.

CANKER, a vague term applied to various diseases of the lower animals, characterised by their chronic nature, and consisting chiefly in ulceration, suppuration, and the development of fungoid excrescences in the parts affected.

CANKER, in the foot of the horse. This malady, believed by Gerlach of Berlin to be truly cancerous, is observed in two different forms: in the acute stage, when the malady is chiefly local; and in the chronic stage, when the constitution suffers, and all local remedies fail to restore a healthy function of the structures of the foot.

Symptoms.-It usually commences by discharge from the heels, or the cleft of the frog of the horse's foot. The horn becomes soft and disintegrated, the vascular structures beneath become inflamed, and the pain which the animal endures is intolerable. It is therefore very lame on one, two, or all feet, according to the number affected. Though there is no constitutional fever, the horse becomes emaciated, and unfit for work. During wet weather, and on damp soil, the symptoms increase in severity; The sore structures bleed on the least touch, and considerable fungoid granulations, commonly called proud flesh, form rapidly.

Causes. This disease is occasionally hereditary, and it is most frequently seen in low-bred draught or coach horses. Dirt, cold, and wet, favour the production of the disease, and there is always a tendency to relapse when once an animal has been

affected.

Treatment.-Pare away detached portions of horn, and, in mild cases, sprinkle powdered acetate of copper over the sore; apply over this pledgets of tow, fixed over the foot by strips of iron or wood passed between shoe and foot. In severe cases, tar and nitric acid, creasote and turpentine, chloride of zinc paste, and other active caustics, have to be used for a time with the regular employment of pressure on the diseased surface. The animal requires to be treated constitutionally by periodical purgatives and alteratives. Good food, fresh air,

and exercise often aid much in the treatment of the disease.

CA'NNA, one of the islands of the Hebrides, off the west coast of Scotland, 7 miles south-west of Skye, and 3 miles north-west of Rum. It belongs to Argyleshire, and is 4 miles long from east to west, and 1 mile broad. The surface stands high above the sea, and consists of trap (claystone, porphyry, and trap conglomerate, with fragments of old red sandstone and bituminous wood), which has overflowed thin lamina of coal and shale. The island has a hill of basalt, called Compass Hill, which reverses the magnetic needle. Pop. (1871) 48. CANNABINA'CEÆ, a natural order of Dicotyledonous plants, or, according to many, a sub-order of URTICACEE (q. v.), differing from the proper Urticaceae chiefly in the suspended exalbuminous

plants of the order or sub-order are known, both of them valuable, HEMP (q. v.) and the Hop (q. v.).

CA'NNÉ (ancient Canna), a town of Southern Italy, in the province of Bari, 8 miles west-southwest of Barletta, not far from the mouth of the Ofanto, formerly the Aufidus. It is celebrated on account of the great victory here gained by Hannibal over the Romans in the summer of 216 B. C. Hannibal crossed the Aufidus at a ford, and attacked the Romans, who in a short time were almost annihilated by the terrible Numidian cavalry. Among those left on the field were Paulus Æmilius, the consul of the previous year; Minucius, the late Master of the Horse; and a vast number of Roman knights. The loss of the Romans is stated by Livy at 45,000 infantry and 3000 cavalry. As Hannibal lost in the battle 8000 men, he did not think it prudent to follow the advice of Maharbal, and advance rapidly on Rome. Twenty thousand Romans were made prisoners, partly on the field of battle and partly in the

camp.

CANNES, a seaport town of France, in the department of Alpes-Maritimes, pleasantly situated on the Mediterranean, on the road to Nice. It is famed for its salubrity, which has induced a number of English families to make it a winter residence. Lord Brougham used to occupy a fine villa here. Latterly, the town has been much improved. It has fisheries of anchovies and sardines, and a trade in the produce of the district. After his escape from Elba, Bonaparte landed about a mile and a half to the east of C., March 1, 1815. Pop. (1872) 7844.

CA'NNIBAL (derived from a variety in the spelling of Caribs, the original inhabitants of the West India Islands, who were reputed to be maneaters, and some tribes of whom, having nor in their language, pronounced their name Canib), which is often used instead of it, one who feeds means, like the Greek word anthropophagos, on human flesh. The practice is often attributed by classical and early Christian writers to races whose practices they denounce as abominable; but the denunciation is often better evidence of the accusation than of its practice by the accused. the abhorrence of cannibalism by those making Homer makes Polyphemus eat men, but only as one of his other unnatural attributes as a monster. The early Christian writers frequently attributed cannibalism to the unconverted. St Jerome gives his personal testimony to the practice, stating that when he was a little boy living in Gaul he beheld the Scots-a people of Britain-eating human flesh; and though there were plenty of cattle and sheep at their disposal, yet would they prefer a ham of the herdsman or a piece of female breast as a luxury. Statements in old authors still more absurd induced some thinkers to believe that cannibalism is unnatural, and to deny that it was ever practised by human beings except under the pressure of starvation. The accurate observation of late travellers has, however, put it beyond doubt that cannibalism has been and is systematically practised. Comte, as part of his system of positive philosophy, accepting of cannibalism as a condition of barbarism, maintains that the greatest step in human civilisation was the invention of slavery, since it put an end to the victor eating the vanquished. The facts, however, which we possess, shew that the people systematically addicted to human flesh are not the most degraded of the human race. For instance, in the Australian continent, where the larger animals are scarce, the people,

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