CALICO-PRINTING. employed are different strengths of red liquor The padding style in C. is intended mainly for thoroughly dried, and washed in various solutions, The topical style in C. is the process whereby certain colouring matters which are insoluble in water, and cannot therefore be applied to cloth by the modes suggested under the madder and padding styles, are treated at once with the mordant, and the mixture by one operation transferred by block, or otherwise, directly on the surface or top of the cloth, and hence the term topical. Indigo, safflower, and arnotto are instances of such insoluble colouring substances; and when these and other dye-stuffs, such as logwood and Brazil wood, are treated with water, thickened with starch and nitro-muriate of tin (known as spirits) added, with occasionally a little of other salts, such as nitrate of copper, the result is the formation of spirit-colours, which can be printed on the surface of cloth, and possess a certain degree of fixity. The permanency of these spirit-colours, however, is very much increased, and the general appearance improved, by afterwards subjecting the goods to the action of steam in a wooden chest or box, when the term steam-colours is applied. The resist style in C. is that in which certain materials are placed on the surface of cloth, to protect it from the adherence of the mordants, and, These consequently, to keep that part of the cloth from being attacked by the colouring matter. materials are termed resists, reserves, or resistThe mechanical resists are such subpastes, and they are divisible into mechanical and chemical. stances as fats, resins, oils, wax, and pipe-clay. A common resist for silk and woollen goods is a mixture of 24 of resin and 1 of suet; and it is principally in the colour-printing of silk and woollen dresses and handkerchiefs that mechanical resists are employed, though they are occasionally used for the printing of cottons. The chemical resists may act on the mordant or on the colour. Thus, if it be desirable to remove the mordant, and thus leave certain parts of the cloth unable to attach colour, the printing of a pattern with some acid substance on the cloth will form with the mordant a soluble salt, which can be readily removed by 513 CALICUT-CALIF. washing, whilst the parts which have not been so acted on by acid are not dissolved away by the washing, and still retain the full power in the colourvats to cause the adhesion of the colour. For this purpose, where an iron or aluminous mordant has been employed, it is customary to print thereon in the requisite pattern, lemon-juice or lime-juice (containing citric acid), tartaric or oxalic acid, and bisulphate of potassa, or a mixture of two or more of these, thickened with pipe-clay, China-clay, gumarabic, dextrine (British gum), gum-Senegal, or a mixture of these; occasionally, chloride of tin is employed. Sulphate of zinc, sulphate and acetate of copper, and the chloride of mercury, are used to resist the adherence of indigo blue. ment of similar materials to those used in the resist into the various colours and shades, will be more appropriately introduced under DYEING. which, though on the west side of the peninsula of CALICUT, a seaport of the district of Malabar, Madras. In lat. 11° 15′ N., and long. 75° 50′ E., it is Hindustan, yet forms part of the presidency of distant from Goa and Bombay respectively 300 and 566 miles. It was the first spot in India visited by coast, with stately dwellings and magnificent pagodas. Vasco da Gama, being then the chief emporium on the So populous and powerful was it, that it twice repulsed the Portuguese, slaying their commander in 1509, and expelling Albuquerque himself, after a momentary success on his part, in 1510. It stands appearing to have possessed at one time a tolerably near the mouth of a small river of the same name, good haven. Gradually, however, this harbour has merely an open roadstead, at a distance, at least been filled up with sand; and now its anchorage is for large vessels, of two or three miles from land. Independently of this physical disadvantage, the ravages of war and the competition of superior localities contributed to the decay of Calicut. Accordingly, in 1792, when it fell into the hands of Since then, it has made considerable progress, and the English, the city was little better than a ruin. has been estimated to contain about 20,000 inhabi its name, just as cambric from Cambray, in the tants. From C., calico is understood to have derived north-east of France. The discharge style in C. comprehends the employ style, but after the cloth has been coloured or dyed, and for the purpose of discharging the colour, or bleaching the cloth at certain parts, according to pattern. The dischargers for organic colouring matters are chlorine and chromic acid. The chlorine is employed in the form of bleaching-powder (q. v.), and the cloth already dyed is printed with a solution of tartaric acid (or other acid), thickened with pipe-clay and gum, then dried, and passed through a solution of bleaching-powder, when the decoloration occurs, as already explained under BLEACHING. The chlorine is also applied by placing a number of folds of coloured cloth between perforated pattern-plates, and subjecting the whole to great pressure; a solution of chlorine (obtained by adding an acid to a weak solution of bleachingpowder) is allowed to percolate down through the perforations of the plates, and the cloth immediately underneath, so that only those spots are bleached, while the rest of the cloth is so highly compressed as to keep the liquid from coming in contact therewith. The well-known Turkey-red handkerchiefs are patterned in this way. The chromic acid is generally employed in discharging indigo colour. The cloth, already entirely blue, is soaked or padded in bichromate of potash, and then an acid discharger printed thereon; and wherever the acid discharger (tartaric, oxalic, citric, or hydrochloric acid) comes in contact with the blue cloth containing the bichromate of potash, chromic acid is liberated, and destroys the colour. Instead of acting upon the coloured cloth, the discharger may be employed to carry off the mordant. Thus, cloth treated wholly with a mordant, and thereafter i. e., Prince of the Faithful-a title which all subseprinted with a pattern in acid, has the mordant removed at those parts where the pattern block has placed the acid. Mineral colours can also be discharged in a similar way. The China blue or pottery style in C. is a modification of the topical style, where indigo is deposited on cloth in the insoluble state, and is thereafter manipulated with, so as to impregnate the cloth with the indigo more or less strongly, and thus produce different shades of blue. The above descriptions of the various operations in C. have special reference to cotton cloth; and though many steps of the manipulative processes apply equally well to linen, silk, worsted, and de laines (worsted and cotton), yet considerable modifications in mode of treatment and material employed are required in the successful colourprinting of all texture containing animal fibre, such as silk and wool. Where the printing of such fabrics differs essentially from the processes already indicated, special reference will be made under SILK and WOOL. The different colouring matters employed in C. being identical with those used in dyeing, will be considered under the general popular title DYE-STUFFS; and the mode of compounding these CA'LIF (Turk., a successor), the title of Mohammed's successors in temporal and spiritual power, from which the historians of the middle ages designated the Arab empire founded by these princes, the CALIFATE. This empire, for two or three centuries, exceeded even the Roman empire in extent. As Mohammed died without leaving any sons, a contest arose concerning the inheritance of his power, which terminated (632 A. D.) in the triumph of Abubekr (q. v.), one of his fathers-in-law, over Ali, his nephew and son-in-law. Abubekr now assumed the title of Califet-Resul-Allah-i. e., Representative or Deputy of the Prophet of God. He sent forth his armies for the extension of Mohammedanism, and after several victories over the forces of the Byzantine empire, conquered Syria. He was succeeded in 634 by Omar, another father-in-law of Mohammed, by whom Egypt and Jerusalem were annexed to the califate. He assumed the title of Emir-al-Mumenin quent califs retained. Othman, a son-in-law of the Prophet, was the third C., and was elected by six persons appointed by Omar before his death. During his reign (644-656 A. D.), the Arabian empire grew with extraordinary rapidity, being extended into Persia, and westward along the north coast of Africa as far as Ceuta. The Byzantine emperors recovered Egypt; but it was wrested from them again at a prodigious expense of blood. The people of Medina elected Ali-ben-Abi-Taleb as C. upon the death of Othman. The Shiites regard him as the first true Imam or high-priest, and honour him and his son Hassan almost equally with Mohammed himself. Contests against rivals prevented him from doing much for the extension of the califate. Moawijah, the governor of Damascus, having made himself really independent during Ali's life, and having extended his power over Syria, Egypt, and part of Arabia, became C. in 661, and founded the dynasty of the Ommiades, making the califate hereditary. He removed the seat of the califate to Damascus. His armies ravaged Asia Minor, and laid siege to Constantinople, but could not take it. He made important conquests, however, in Central Asia. The califate did not remain long in the CALIF-CALIFORNIA. family of Moawijah, and it frequently happened that in one or other of the subject countries a governor raised himself to a temporary independence; and rival califs frequently contended for power. Abdalmelek (685—705 A. D.) united all the Moslems under his dominion. Under his son, Walid I., the califate reached its zenith of prosperity, the Arabs conquering Turkestan in 707, Galatia in 710, and Spain in 711. Under Hesham, the progress of the Arabs in the west was arrested by Charles Martel at Tours (732 A. D.) and at Narbonne (736 A. D.). The dynasty of the Ommiades in Asia terminated with Merwan II. in 752, giving place to that of the Abbasides. But a branch of the Ommiades founded an independent califate at Cordova, and another founded one in Arabia, which subsisted till the 16th century. Abul-Abbas (750-754 A.D.), the first Abbaside C., signalised himself by his cruelty and the torrents of human blood which he shed. His successor, Abu-Jafar, called Al-Mansur, a patron of the arts, but a persecutor of Christians, founded Bagdad (q. v.), and removed the seat of the califate thither. From the beginning of the 9th c., the Arab empire, which had suffered much from corruption and internal disorganisation under the last califs of the Ommiade dynasty, and had never completely recovered, shewed increasing signs of decay. Even under the C. Harun-al-Raschid, whose praises the eastern poets were accustomed so much to celebrate, independent kingdoms were established (800 A. D.) by the Aghlabides in Tunis, and the Edrisides in Fez. In 821, Taher, the governor of Khorassan, made himself independent, and established a dynasty there, and other governors of provinces followed his example. But under the C. Al-Mamun, the Arabians conquered Sicily and Sardinia, the former of which they held till it was taken from them in 1035 by the Normans; and the latter, till it was conquered by the Pisans in 1051. The C. Motassem (833-842 A. D.) was the first to employ Turkish soldiers; but the practice was followed by his successors; and the Turkish body-guard soon became a formidable power in the califate, and about the middle of the 9th c. assumed the right of deciding the succession to the throne. Many of the califs, meanwhile, were base voluptuaries, and of the others, some were of little capacity, and their power rapidly declined. Ere the middle of the 10th c., the califs themselves exercised a mere nominal sove gradually extended to an indefinite portion of the adjoining continent, as far north as the parallel of 42°. The original C., however, and its augmentation were distinguished from each other as Ŏld and New, Lower and Upper. In 1848, partly by conquest and partly by purchase, continental C., down to the parallel of 32° 28', was ceded to the United States. After existing as a territory for two years, it was, in 1850, constituted one of the United States, bounded N. by Oregon, E. by Nevada and Arizona, S. by Lower C., and W. by the Pacific. Between the two Californias of the present day, the American one and the Mexican one, there is nothing in common but the name.-1. Mexican C. is the peninsula above mentioned, which, though considerably longer than Great Britain, is yet so narrow as to be very little larger than Scotland. From end to end, it is one ridge of mountains, which here and there rise to about 5000 feet above the sea. A few favoured spots yield fruits and grains in abundance; but, generally speaking, the productions are unimportant, for even trees, and those of no great size, are found only towards the southern extremity of the country. The population certainly does not exceed 10,000-the oldest and most considerable town, Loretto, on the east side, containing barely 1000 inhabitants. On the west side is the magnificent harbour, peculiarly valuable on a coast so destitute of shelter, formed by the Bay of Magdalena and the island of Santa Margarita.-2. American C., vaguely claimed, under the name of New Albion, by Drake for England in 1579, lay unoccupied till 1767, when it was invaded by Franciscan friars, the successors in Mexico of the newly expelled Jesuits. These zealous apostles, backed, when necessary, by armed coadjutors, planted various missions, bringing under their influence, such as it was, the great mass of the aborigines. Under such circumstances, the new province became pre-eminent, even in Spanish America, for everything that could paralyse the progress of a community. Anglo-Saxon speculators engrossed most of the trade; American trappers walked through the land as if it had been their own; the Muscovites established, in the north, a town under the ominous title of Ross or Russia; and a Swiss adventurer of the name of Sutter, who had carved out for himself a New Helvetia, virtually set reignty, whilst the emirs, like the mayors of the the government at defiance. But the discovery of palace towards the close of the Merovingian dynasty tical transfer of 1848, taken together, changed, as if gold in Sutter's mill-race during 1847, and the poliamong the Franks, possessed all real power. The princes of the Fatimide dynasty, which succeeded by a miracle, the aspect of affairs. The matchless that of the Aghlabides in Tunis, having made them-harbour of San Francisco became the grand mart selves masters of Egypt in 970, assumed the title on the Pacific, presenting a centre of attraction of C., so that there were now three califates-at to the restless and energetic of every race and Bagdad, at Cairo, and at Cordova. In the 11th c., tion increased from 92,597 to 264,435; in 1855 the every clime. Between 1850 and 1852, the popula the califs of Bagdad were still acknowledged as the spiritual chiefs of all the Moslems; but their population was 327,000; and in 1870 it was 560,247. temporal power scarcely extended beyond the walls The total amount of gold reported, for exportation, of Bagdad. Bagdad itself became the prey of a at the custom-house of San Francisco, from 1819 Mongol horde in 1258, and the representative of to 1864 inclusive, was valued at 695,684,879 dollars. the califs fled to Egypt, where, under the protec- From this, about 45,000,000 dollars may be subtion of the Mamelukes, who had made themselves tracted from the yield of C., as coming from Nevada, masters of that country in 1250, he retained his title Idaho, British Columbia, Arizona, and Mexico; but and spiritual power, which he transmitted to his to the remainder 150,000,000 should be added for successors, who continued to reside there till the gold shipped, but not reported at the customTurks conquered Egypt in 1517, when the last of house. The total yield of gold in this state, them was carried to Constantinople; and since that previous to 1868, was about 900,000,000 dollars. time the Turkish sultans have assumed the title of It possesses the richest quicksilver mine in the C., and claimed to be regarded as the spiritual world-that of New Almaden-annual production chiefs of all the Moslems, a claim to which little respect has ever been paid except within the limits of their own empire. CALIFORNIA. This name was at first applied to a peninsula on the west side of Mexico, but was about 2,600,000 lbs. The total yield of precious metals in C. in 1871 was 20,000,000 dollars. În 1864, 15,000 tons of copper were exported, to be smelted at Swansea and Boston; platina, too, has been found in many of the placers. There is coal in nearly all the coast counties; and asphaltum is pro 515 CALIFORNIA-CALIXTINES. duced by many springs along the southern coast. lust. Consequently, when illness, the result of his The yield of wheat in 1870 was 16,676,702 bushels; vicious life, had weakened his faculties, the lower of barley, 8,783,490. In the year 1867, 4,000,000 qualities of his nature obtained the complete masgallons of wine and 400,000 gallons of brandy were made, the product of 30,000,000 vines. Silk culture is making rapid progress; and the woollen factories of C. consume nearly 6,000,000 lbs. of wool annually. In 1868, San Francisco alone produced 3,000,000 dollars worth of iron castings. The country is mountainous, and is cut into coast and interior by a subordinate range from Oregon. The interior is subdivided into the valleys of the Sacramento and the San Joachim-two rivers from the north-east and the south-east, which enter the noble haven of San Francisco. Of those two valleys, the former is the more important, both as being the chief seat of the 'diggings,' and as leading through the Rocky Mountains by the comparatively level route of Fremont's Pass. Thus does the north section of C., with its rare combination of inland and maritime facilities, promise to contend successfully with the Isthmus of Darien and Central America as a route for connecting the Atlantic with the Pacific. C., with a lovely and salubrious climate, produces fruits and grains freely, under advantageous circumstances of soil and situation. In the growth of timber, however, it appears to be almost unrivalled. Fremont measured one tree that was 21 feet in diameter, or 66 in circumference; and another has been seen, which, with a length of 150 yards, is nearly 120 feet in girth. Besides the capital, the state contains the cities of Sacramento, Marysville, and Stockton; and the towns of Placerville, San Jose, Vallejo, Sonora, Shasta, Sonoma, Monterey with a pretty well-sheltered anchorage, and San Diego with the second best port in the state. CALIFORNIA, GULF OF, an arm of the Pacific Ocean, which divides the peninsula above described from the rest of Mexico. It was originally known as the Sea of Cortez, having been discovered under his auspices, and explored by himself; and it has, from its shape, been occasionally designated the Adriatic of the New World. It is 700 miles in length, and varies in width from 40 to 100 miles. At its northern extremity, it almost touches the territory of the United States, receiving therefrom the united streams of the Gila and the Colorado. The gulf contains many islands, particularly towards its head, and has long had a pearl-fishery. At the east side of its entrance stands Mazatlan, on a river of the same name, now the most frequented port of the neighbouring regions. he wore. CALIGULA, CAIUS CÆSAR AUGUSTUS GERMANICUS, Roman emperor (37-41 A.D.), the youngest son of Germanicus (nephew of Tiberius) by Agrippina, was born, 31st August, 12 A.D., at Antium, and was educated in the camp, where the soldiers gave him the by-name C., from the half-boots (caliga) which On the death of his brother Drusus, he was made augur in his stead; and on the death of Tiberius (37 A.D.), who, it was suspected, had received foul-play at his hands, it was found that he had been appointed co-heir along with the grandson of Tiberius, but the senate and the people allowed C. supreme and sole authority. In the beginning of his reign, he appeared hardly likely to fulfil the threat of Tiberius, who had talked of educating C. 'for the destruction of the Roman people.' He was, to appearance, lavishly generous and merciful, pardoning even those who had been the instruments of cruelty against his own family. But this ostentatious magnanimity was itself a disease, an unwholesome affectation, founded on no principle, or even humanity of heart, and coexisted with the most savage voluptuousness and 516 tery. In addition to the senseless prodigality with which he commenced his career-expending in one year the enormous wealth left by Tiberius (720 millions of sesterces)-he began to manifest the most barbarous propensities. He banished or murdered his relatives, excepting his uncle Claudius and sister Drusilla (with whom he carried on incestuous intercourse); filled Rome with executions, confiscating the estates of his victims; amused himself, while dining, by having victims tortured and slain in his presence; and uttered the wish that all the Roman people had but one neck, so that he might decapitate Rome at a blow!' To vie with Xerxes, he made a bridge of ships over the bay between Baie and Puteoli (a distance of three Roman miles and six hundred paces), and celebrated the exploit by a costly banquet on the middle of the bridge, and by collecting on it great numbers of people, and causing them to be drowned. His favourite horse was stabled in a palace, fed at a marble manger with gilded oats, was made a member of the college of priests, and afterwards raised to the consulship. As a climax to all his absurdities, he declared himself a god, and had temples erected, and sacrifices offered to himself. To gratify his monstrous desires, he shrunk from no infamy; he robbed, plundered, and taxed his subjects to a degree which seems almost incredible, and when even these means proved insufficient, he established a brothel in his own palace, and sent out his slaves to solicit the public patronage for it. At length a conspiracy was formed against him, and he was assassinated 41 A. D. CALIPPIC CY'CLE. See PERIOD. CALITRI, a town of Italy, in the province of Avellino, near the Ofanto, and about 7 miles eastnorth-east of Conza. It has a population of 6200, who are chiefly engaged in agricultural pursuits. Sheep are reared to a considerable extent in the vicinity. CA'LIVER was a matchlock or firearm about midway in size and character between an arquebus and a musket; it was small enough to be fired without a rest or support. CALIXTINES, a Bohemian religious sect, so named from the Latin calix, a cup, because they contended for giving the cup, as well as the consecrated wafer, to the laity. Their confession of faith (1421) contained the following articles: 1. That the word of God ought to be freely and regularly preached by the priests of the Lord throughout Bohemia; 2. That the eucharist in both kinds ought to be administered to all burdened with 'no mortal sins,' according to the language and command of the Saviour; 3. That the clergy should separate themselves from secular affairs; 4. That all mortal sins,' and especially public ones, such as debauchery and simony, and any other disorders contrary to the law of God, should be prevented or punished by those who were the lawful authorities in such matters. In other main points they were moderate followers of John Huss, and were opposed to the more extreme sect of Taborites (q. v.). Their peculiar articles of faith were conceded by order of the council at Basel (1433); and having prevailed over the Taborites in the conflict which took place at Boehmischbrod 30th May 1434, they became the dominant party in Bohemia, and exercised considerable influence over political affairs. Gradually, however, the C. lapsed from the severity of their four articles, while the schism of the energetic Taborites, and later of the Bohemian Brethren (q. v.), rendered them completely CALIXTUS-CALL OF THE HOUSE. powerless. At the beginning of the 16th c., they had ceased to possess any importance, and only served to prepare the way for Protestantism. CALIXTUS, GEORG (properly, Callisen), an eminent theologian of the Lutheran Church, was born 15th December 1586, at Melley, in Holstein; studied at Flensborg and Helmstedt; and, in 1605, became professor of philosophy in the latter of these cities. Two years after, he betook himself to theology, and attracted great attention by the breadth and originality of his views. After travelling for some time in Germany, Holland, England, and France, where he made the acquaintance of the most learned men of his time, he returned to Helmstedt in 1613, and was appointed professor of theology. His genius, the depth of his knowledge, and his large experience of the world and of men, which he had acquired in his travels, developed in him a spirit of great tolerance towards all who held their religious opinions honestly, whatever these might be. Although his dissertations on the Holy Scripture, transubstantiation, communion in one kind, &c., are acknowledged by learned Catholics to be about the most solid and admirable which have been composed by Protestants against the distinctive doctrines of Catholicism, he was, on account of some statements in his work, entitled De Præcipuis Religionis Christiana Capitibus (Helmstedt, 1613), which seemed favourable to Catholic dogmas, and of others in his Epitome Theologice Moralis (Helmstedt, 1634), De Tolerantia Reformatorum, &c. (Helmstedt, 1658), declared guilty of abominable heresy by the adherents of the letter of the Concordienformel-i. e., the Lutherans, men who now possessed nothing of the great reformer but his animosity. C. seems to have felt, what many devout hearts still feel, that the polemical harshness of Lutheranism is a serious obstacle in the way of a great Catholic Christianity, and that Protestantism must assume another form still before it can hope to become the religion of Europe. Under this conviction, C. endeavoured to shew that the oldest and most fundamental articles of the Christian faith-viz., the facts embodied in the Apostles' Creed'-were common to all Christian sects. In subsequent dissertations, having stated that the doctrine of the Trinity was less distinctly taught in the Old than in the New Testament, and that good works were necessary to salvation; and finally, at the religious conference of Thorn, in 1649, whither he was sent a mediator by the Elector of Brandenburg, having been on more intimate terms with the Calvinistic than the Lutheran theologians, C. was accused of apostasy. Fortunately, however, he had powerful friends, who stood firmly by him, and through their help he was enabled to retain his professorial chair to the end of his life. He died 19th March 1656. as CALL, a term often used in reference to various theological and ecclesiastical subjects.-1. The command or invitation to believe in Jesus Christ, is designated the call of God, or the gospel call. Calvinistic theologians make a distinction between a general call and a special or effectual call. The former is addressed, they say, to all to whom the word of God comes; but it is insufficient of itself to induce any man to the act of faith, and requires, in order to its efficacy, that it be accompanied by the special and irresistible grace of the Holy Spirit. They are careful, however, to state that the general or outward calling by the word always precedes and accompanies the special and effectual calling by the Spirit. The notion of an inward call by the Spirit of God in the soul, unconnected with outward calling by the word, belongs not to Calvinistic, but to mystic theology.-2. A call CALL, a stipulated sum to be paid towards a CALL is a metal whistle used by the boatswain and his mate on shipboard. Various strains or kinds of sound produced denote signals or orders for hoisting, heaving, lowering, veering, belaying, letting-go, &c. These sounds are as much attended to by seamen, as those of the drum, bugle, and trumpet are by soldiers. At one time, a gold call, with a chain, used to be the badge of an admiral. CALL OF THE HOUSE is an imperative summons to every member of parliament of either House on some particular occasion, when the sense of the whole House is deemed necessary. In the House of Lords, when any urgent business is deemed to require the attendance of the lords, it has been usual to order the House to be called over; and this imprisonment upon absent lords. On some occaorder has sometimes been enforced by fines and sions, the Lord Chancellor has addressed letters to The all the peers, desiring their attendance, as on the illness of George III., 1st November 1810. most important occasion on which the House was called over, in modern times, was in 1820, for the trial of Queen Caroline. When the House of Commons is ordered to be called over, it is usual to name a day which will enable the members to attend from all parts of the country. The interval between the order and the call has varied from one day to six weeks. If it be really intended to enforce the call, not less than a week or ten days should intervene between the order and the day named for the call. The order for the House to be called over is always accompanied by a resolution, 'that such members as shall not then attend, be sent for, in custody of the serjeantat-arms.' And it was formerly the custom to desire 517 |