CALDAS-CALDERON. understood), which are very abundant in the Peninsula, where a great number of places have received their names from the presence of these mineral waters; such as C. de Malavella, C. de Estrac, and C. de Mombuy, in Catalonia; C. de Reyes, C. de Cuntis, and C. de Tuy, in Galicia; C. de Taipas, C. de Faveios, C. de Rainhas, and C. de Renduse, in Portugal. The name has also passed into the topography of the New World. There is a C. in Brazil, which is noted for its hot sulphur springs. Yorkshire. It rises in a marsh on the borders of CA'LDER, a river in the West Riding of Lancashire, near Burnley, runs tortuously east in the deep valley of Todmorden, past Halifax, Dewsbury, total course of 40 miles, it joins the Aire near Ponand Wakefield. It then runs north-east, and after a tefract, that river falling into the Ouse. The C. is important as forming a considerable portion of the canal route through Yorkshire and Lancashire, between the east and west coasts of England. lines of railway to various parts of India; the East the Spanish for warm springs (aquas, waters, being Indian to Benares, Delhi, and Multan, its present terminus, whence it is to be continued to Kurachee; the Eastern Bengal, the extension of which to Gulundu was opened in 1871; and the Calcutta and South-eastern to the mouth of the Ganges. The great Indian Peninsula Railway branches off from the East Indian, and connects C. with Bombay and Madras. C. is also connected by electric telegraph with the principal towns of India, and can communicate with England by three different lines. Uninterrupted communication is kept up with Great Britain by numerous and well-appointed steamers and sailing-vessels. This intercourse has been greatly facilitated by the opening of the Suez Canal. Navigation on the Hooghly is dangerous, owing to the shifting sands; and though much has been attempted, little has been effected in the way of remedying the evil. The river, adjacent to the city, varies in breadth from a quarter of a mile to nearly a mile. Ships of 2000 tons can ascend to C. The growth of scientific and literary societies, here and elsewhere in India among the native communities, indicates a degree of progress and intellectual activity very hopeful for the future of India. The principal of these in C. are the Bengal Asiatic Society, founded in 1784 by Sir W. Jones, possessing a fine library, and a valuable and extensive museum; the Bethune Society, for the promotion of intercourse between European and native gentlemen; the Dalhousie Institute, for the literary and social improvement of all classes of the community; the Bengal Social Science Association, and others. The university of C. was founded in 1857, on the same basis as the London University, and exercises functions over Bengal, the North-west Provinces, Oudh, and the Central Provinces. Colleges have been instituted to prepare undergraduates for the university. In 1871, of 1503 Bengal candidates for admission, 581 passed the required examinations. Other educational institutions are numerous in C. The principal places for religious instruction are Bishop's College, intended chiefly for the education of missionaries and teachers, and the institutions of the Established and Free Churches of Scotland, for the same purpose, all which are ably conducted. C. may be regarded as the great commercial centre of Asia. One-third of the whole trade of India is done here. In 1872, the exports amounted to £27,477,127, exclusive of treasure, and the imports to £15,667,235. The chief exports are jute, cotton, rice, sugar, indigo, coffee, tea, saltpetre, linseed, shellac, buffalo horns, hides, castor-oil, cutch, gunny bags, &c. The jute exported in 1872 was valued at £4,000,000, the indigo at £2,500,000, and the tea at £1,400,000. In the same year 658 sailing-vessels and 301 steamers, with a total tonnage of 999,614, arrived in the Hooghly; and 637 sailing-vessels and 301 steamers, with a total tonnage of 957,523, sailed. The principal industries are sugar refining, cotton manufacturing, flour, saw, and oil mills, and shipbuilding docks. Several newspapers are published. There are a few banks and numerous insurance and other companies, with a Chamber of Commerce. Living is comparatively cheap, and most of the luxuries of life, as well as its necessaries, are to be had in the unpretentious shops of C. as readily as in most European towns. The annual fall of rain averages 64 inches; the temperature in the shade ranges in July from 78° to $7°, and in December from 60° to 79°. C. is the headquarters of the governor-general of India, and the seat of the government, the supreme courts of justice, and of the court of appeal for the lower provinces of Bengal. CA'LDAS, or CALDETAS (Lat. callidus, hot), CA'LDERON (DON PEDRO) DE LA BARCA HENAO Y RIANO, was born in Madrid, in the year 1601, and received his early education in the Jesuits' College at Madrid. Afterwards, at Salamanca, he studied chiefly history, philosophy, and law. His poetical genius was precocious. Before he was 14 years old, he had written a drama, El Carro del Cielo (The Celestial Chariot). In early life he gained, by his poetry, and also by his fertile invention of decorations, &c., for festive occasions, the patronage of several distinguished persons, and, on leaving Salamanca, 1619, was well received by the courtiers at Madrid. Love of military adventure induced him to enter the army, 1625; and, after serving with distinction in Milan and the Netherlands, he was recalled to the court of Philip IV., prince fond of theatrical amusements, by whom he was employed to superintend various court-amusements, and especially to invent dramas for the Royal Theatre. In the following year C. was made knight of the order of San Jago, and took part in the campaign in Catalonia. Peace brought him back to poetry. The king gave him a pension, contrived to let him cultivate uninterruptedly his fertile dramatic genius, and spared no cost in securing for his plays a splendid initiation on the stage. In 1651, Č. received from the head of the order of San Jago permission to enter the church, and, in 1653, was appointed to the chaplaincy of the arch-episcopal church of Toledo; but as this post removed him too far from the court, he was appointed chaplain in the Royal Chapel at Madrid, 1663, and received, with other favours, a pension charged on the revenue of Sicily. In the same year he was appointed a priest in the brotherhood of San Pedro, and, shortly before his death, was elected by his brethren as their caplan mayor. He died May 25, 1681, leaving his considerable property to the fraternity of San Pedro, by whom a splendid monument to his memory was raised in the church of San Salvador at Madrid. Fame and pecuniary prosperity had accompanied his career. The chief cities of Spain-such as Toledo, Seville, and Granada-had paid him, from time to time, large sums of money for writing their Autos Sacramentales, or Corpus Christi pieces. In these compositions, C. excelled all his predecessors, and esteemed them more highly than all his other works, though in many respects the latter display the author's genius quite as remarkably. Spain numbers C. among its greatest poets, and criticism must allow that many of the defects in his works are to be ascribed to circumstances, and the times in which he lived, rather than to the native CALDERON-CALEDONIAN CANAL. tendencies of his genius. He is characterised by the muses. CALDERON, DON SERAPHIN, a living Spanish poet, was born at Malaga about the commencement of the century, studied law at the university of Granada, and in 1822 became professor of poetry and rhetoric there. A volume of poems which he published shortly after procured for him some distinction. Subsequently, he became an advocate in his native city, but still continued faithful to In 1830, he went to Madrid, where he published anonymously his Poesías del Solitario (1833). He also wrote several articles on Andalusian manners for the Cartas Españolas, the only literary journal at that period in Spain. In 1836 he was appointed civil governor of Logroño, but an accident obliged him to return to Madrid, where he devoted himself to collecting MSS. of the old national literature, to be the basis of a great critical edition of the Cancioneros and Romanceros. C. has likewise written a fine novel, entitled Cristianos y Moriscos, in the spirit and style of Cervantes, which was published in the Colleccion de Novelas Originales Españolas. To the literature of the Spanish Moors he has paid great attention. His latest work is a series of lively sketches of Andalusian life, Escenas Andaluzas (1847). CALDERWOOD, DAVID, an eminent Scottish divine and ecclesiastical historian, descended of a good family, was born in 1575, and about 1604 was settled as Presbyterian minister of Crailing, Roxburghshire. Opposed to the designs of James VI. for the establishment of Episcopacy in Scotland, on that monarch's visit to his native country in 1617, he and other ministers signed a protest against a bill, then before the Scots parliament, for granting the power of framing new laws for the church to an ecclesiastical council appointed by the king, and in consequence he was summoned before the High Commission of St Andrews. Refusing to submit, he was committed to prison for contumacy, and then banished the kingdom. He retired to Holland, and in 1623 published there his celebrated controversial work, entitled Altare Damascenum. &c.. in which he rigorously examined the origin and authority of Episcopacy. In 1622, a pretended recantation of his protest was published at London by a venal writer, Patrick Scott. While on the continent, C. was known by the quaint appellation of Edwardus Didoclavius, being an anagram on his name Latinised. After King James's death in 1625, he returned to Scotland, and for some years was engaged collecting all the memorials relating to the ecclesiastical affairs of Scotland, from the beginning of the Reformation there to the death of James VI. In 1638, he became minister of Pencaitland, near Edinburgh; and in 1643 was appointed one of the committee for drawing up the Directory for Public CALDIE'RO (ancient Caldarium), a decayed CALEDO'NIA, a kind of poetical name applied to Scotland; being a resumption of that given by Antoninus, which ran between the Firths of Forth the Romans to the country north of the Wall of and Clyde. Among the chief tribes of this region Tacitus speaks of the were the Caledonii, whence the whole country has been called Caledonia. Caledonians as having red hair, large limbs; being naked and barefooted; living in tents without cities; supporting themselves by pasturing cattle, by the chase, and by certain ferries; addicted to predatory warfare; and fighting in chariots with shields, short spears, and daggers. They are supposed to have been of Gaelic or Celtic origin, and to have painted their bodies, whence the name Picti or Picts, by which, according to many writers, they were afterwards known. Agricola was the In 84 A.D. he defeated them, now first Roman general to come in contact with the Caledonians. united to repel a common enemy, under their chief Galgacus, at the Mons Grampius, the site of which has not been satisfactorily determined. The Romans overran the north-east of Scotland as far as the Moray Firth, and formed many encampments (of which remains still exist), but they never reduced the country to a Roman province. Roman coins and military relics have been found in connection with these camps. The name of Caledonii disappears about the beginning of the 4th c., when the inhabitants of Scotland begin to be spoken of as Scots (q. v.) and Picts (q. v.). CALEDONIA, NEW. See NEW CALEDONIA. CALEDONIAN CANAL, a chain of natural lakes united by artificial canals, running across the north of Scotland in a straight line from north-east to south-west, from the North Sea to the Atlantic, through Glenmore, or the Great Glen of Albin, in Inverness-shire, and touching Argyleshire at the south end. The sea and fresh water lochs in this line are Beauly, Ness, Oich, Lochy, Eil, and Linnhe. The canal was formed to avoid the dangerous and tedious navigation of ships, especially coasting vessels, round by the Pentland Firth, Cape Wrath, and the Hebrides; the distance between Kinnaird's Head and the Sound of Mull by this route being 500 miles, but The C. C. begins in by the canal only 250, with an average saving of 9 days for sailing vessels. the Beauly Firth, near Inverness, whence a cut of 7 miles joins Loch Ness, which is 24 by 1 mile. A cut of 6 miles joins Loch Ness and Loch Oich, which is 34 by mile. Another cut of 2 miles joins Loch Oich and Loch Lochy, which is 10 by 1 mile; and a fourth cut of 8 miles joins Loch Eil at the village of Corpach, 2 miles north of Fort William. This ship-communication is 60 miles long, 374 Each cut is 120 feet broad miles being through natural lochs or lakes, and 23 miles by artificial cuts. at surface, and 50 at bottom, and 17 deep. The highest part is Loch Oich, which is 94 feet above 509 CALEMBOURG-CALENDAR. the sea. There are in all 28 locks, each 170 to 180 feet long, and 40 wide, with a rise or lift of water of 8 feet. Eight of the locks, called Neptune's Staircase, occur in succession near the west end of the canal. Some large mountain streams between Lochs Eil and Lochy are conducted in huge culverts under the canal; and by a new cut, the Lochy water is turned into the Spean. The practicability of this great work was first shewn by a survey under government in 1773 by the celebrated James Watt; but it was not till 1803 that it was begun under Mr Telford. The whole line was opened for ships in 1823. After three years of repair, it was re-opened in 1847. Ships of 500 to 600 tons, fully laden, can pass through the canal. The canal and tonnage rates for sailing vessels are each a farthing per mile per ton, and a half of this for vessels under 125 tons. Steamers pay 2s. a ton. Of £1,368,203 expended on this canal, from 1803 to 1856, £1,242,387 were voted by parliament, and £90,748 were from canal dues. Heavy gales and rains in December 1848 and January 1849 did much damage to the canal, which was repaired by a government grant of £10,000. For the year ending April 1873, the total number of passages made on the canal was 1885; and the income from tonnage rates, £4713. There is a regular steam-communication along the canal between Glasgow and Inverness. There is romantic and wild mountain scenery on both sides of the canal, besides many other objects of interest to the tourist, such as Fort William, Ben Nevis, Inverlochy Castle, Tor Castle, the ancient seat of Cameron of Locheil, Glen Spean, Glen Roy, with its Parallel Roads, Fort Augustus, the Fall of Foyers, and Inverness. CA'LEMBOURG, or CA'LEMBOUR, the French name for a pun (q. v.). CA'LENDAR (from CALENDS, q. v.), the mode of adjusting the months and other divisions of the civil year to the natural or solar year. The necessity of some division and measurement of time must have been early felt. The phases or changes of the moon supplied a natural and very obvious mode of dividing and reckoning time, and hence the division into months (q. v.—see also WEEK) of 29 or 30 days was, perhaps, the earliest and most universal. But it would soon be observed that, for many purposes, the changes of the seasons were more serviceable as marks of division; and thus arose the division into years (q. v.), determined by the motions of the sun. It was soon, however, discovered that the year, or larger division, did not contain an exact number of the smaller divisions or months, and that an accommodation was necessary; and various not very dissimilar expedients were employed for correcting the error that arose. The ancient Egyptians had a year determined by the changes of the seasons, without reference to the changes of the moon, and containing 365 days, divided into twelve months of 30 days each, with five supplementary days at the end of the year. The Jewish year consisted, in the earliest periods, as it still does, of twelve lunar months, a thirteenth being from time to time introduced, to accommodate it to the sun and seasons; this was also the case with the ancient Syrians, Macedonians, &c. The Jewish months have alternately 29 and 30 days; and in a cycle of 19 years there are seven years having the intercalary month, some of these years having also one, and some two days more than others have, so that the length of the year varies from 353 to 385 days.The Greeks, in the most ancient periods, reckoned according to real lunar months, twelve making a year; and about 594 B. C., Solon introduced in Athens the mode of reckoning alternately 30 and 29 days to the month, accommodating this civil year of 354 days to the solar year, by occasional introduction of an intercalary month. A change was afterwards made, by which three times in eight years a month of 30 days was intercalated, making the average length of the year 365 days. See METONIC CYCLE. The Romans are said to have had originally a year of 10 months; but in the times of their kings, they adopted a lunar year of 355 days, divided into 12 months, with an occasional intercalary month. Through the ignorance of the priests, who had the charge of this matter, the utmost confusion gradually arose, which Julius Cæsar remedied, 46 B.C., by the introduction of the JULIAN CALENDAR, according to which the year has ordinarily 365 days, and every fourth year is a leap-year of 366 days-the length of the year being thus assumed as 365 days, while it is in reality 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 50 seconds; or 11 minutes, 10 seconds less. Cæsar gave to the months the number of days which they still have. So comparatively perfect was the Julian style of reckoning time, that it prevailed generally among Christian nations, and remained undisturbed till the renewed accumulation of the remaining error of eleven minutes or so had amounted, in 1582 years after the birth of Christ, to ten complete days; the vernal equinox falling on the 11th instead of the 21st of March, as it did at the time of the Council of Nice, 325 years after the birth of Christ. This shifting of days had caused great disturbances, by unfixing the times of the celebration of Easter, and hence of all the other movable feasts. And accordingly, Pope Gregory XIII., after deep study and calculation, ordained that ten days should be deducted from the year 1582, by calling what, according to the old calendar, would have been reckoned the 5th of October, the 15th of October 1582; and in order that the displacement might not recur, it was further ordained that every hundredth year (1800, 1900, 2100, &c.) should not be counted a leap-year, excepting every fourth hundredth, beginning with 2000. In this way the difference between the civil and the natural year will not amount to a day in 5000 years. In Spain, Portugal, and part of Italy, the pope was exactly obeyed. In France, the change took place in the same year, by calling the 10th the 20th of December. In the Low Countries, the change was from the 15th December to the 25th; but it was resisted by the Protestant part of the community till the year 1700. The Catholic nations, in general, adopted the style ordained by their sovereign pontiff; but the Protestants were then too much inflamed against Catholicism in all its relations, to receive even a purely scientific improvement from such hands. The Lutherans of Germany, Switzerland, and, as already mentioned, of the Low Countries, at length gave way in 1700, when it had become necessary to omit eleven instead of ten days. A bill to this effect had been brought before the parliament of England in 1585, but does not appear to have gone beyond a second reading in the House of Lords. It was not till 1751, and after great inconvenience had been experienced for nearly two centuries, from the difference of the reckoning, that an act was passed (24 Geo. II., 1751) for equalising the style in Great Britain and Ireland with that used in other countries of Europe. It was then enacted that eleven days should be omitted after the 2d of September 1752, so that the ensuing day should be the 14th. A similar change was about the same time made in Sweden and Tuscany; and Russia is now the only country which adheres to the old style; an adherence which renders it CALENDAR OF PRISONERS CALENDS. June 27 heater, the one immediately above and that directly necessary, when a letter is thence addressed to a person in another country, that the date should be given thus:-April or J; for it will be observed, the year 1800, not being considered by us as a leap-year, has, interjected another (or twelfth) day between old and new style. The C. of the French Republic remains to be noticed, which was adopted in consequence of a decree of the National Convention in 1793. The Before the final rolling in the C. machine, the midnight preceding the autumnal equinox of 1792 was fixed upon as the new epoch, from which the years were to be reckoned as the Year One, the fabric is first lightly smoothed by passing over warm Year Two, &c. The year was divided into 12 cylinders. Cotton goods are starched with a starch prepared from flour, and the starch is sometimes months, each of 30 days, to which new names were thickened with plaster of Paris, porcelain clay, or a given, as Vendémiaire (vintage month), Brumaire (foggy month), &c.; and instead of weeks, each mixture of these, to give a fictitious appearance of mouth was divided into periods of 10 days, called stoutness, which of course vanishes when the article Primidi, Duodi, Tridi, &c. Five complementary days is washed. For ordinary C. the fabric is then simply were added at the end of each year, which were the passed between plain cylinders, which produces the Fête du Génie, Fête du Travail, &c. By Napoleon's command, this new system was abolished, and the use of the Gregorian Č. resumed on January 1, 1806. CALENDAR OF PRISONERS, in the practice of the criminal law in England, is the technical name given to the list of all prisoners' names in the custody of the sheriff of each county, prepared for the assizes. When the business is over, and the trials concluded, the clerk of assize makes out in writing four lists of all the prisoners, with separate columns, containing their crimes, verdicts, and sentences, leaving a blank column, in which, if the judge has reason to vary the course of the law, he writes opposite the names of the capital convicts to be reprieved, respited, transported, &c. These four calendars, being first carefully compared together by the judge and the clerk of assize, are signed by them, and one is given to the sheriff, one to the jailer, and the judge and the clerk of assize respectively keep another. If the sheriff receives afterwards no special order from the judge, he executes the judg ment of the law in the usual manner, agreeably to the directions of his calendar. In every county, this important subject is settled with great deliberation by the judge and the clerk of assize, before the judge leaves the assize-town; but probably in different counties, with some slight variation, as in Lancashire, no calendar is left with the jailer, but one is sent to the home secretary. CA'LENDERING is the term applied to the process of finishing by pressure the surface of linen, cotton, and other textile fabrics. It is usually done by passing the fabric between cylinders pressed together with great force; hence the origin of the term, which is a corruption of cylindering. The familiar domestic processes of starching and ironing afford the simplest illustrations of the object and result of calendering. The domestic mangle effects the same object as the flat iron, and is a near approach in construction to the C. engines of the manufacturer, no traversing-box of stones being used in the new patent mangles. The cylindrical C. machine is said to have been introduced into this country by the Huguenots, driven here by persecution. The cylinders were originally of wood, but the liability to warping is a strong objection to these. The modern calender usually consists of four, five, or six rollers or cylinders set vertically in a strong iron frame, with suitable driving gear, and furnished with weights suspended over a pulley to produce the required pressure. This sometimes amounts to, or even exceeds, 20 tons, including the weight of the rollers. In a five-roller machine, the arrangement is this: The centre roller is of iron or copper, made hollow for the admission of steam or a red-hot desired effect by flattening the otherwise round CA'LENDS. The Romans made a threefold 511 CALENTURE-CALICO-PRINTING. CA'LENTURE, a Spanish term (calentura) applied to a species of temporary delirium or fever occurring on board ship in hot climates, and probably due to the effect of exposure to the direct rays of the sun. The descriptions of the disease seem rather fanciful and contradictory, and the term is nearly obsolete. See Dictionnaire des Sciences Médicales. CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL, an eminent American statesman, descended from an Irish family who founded the Calhouns' Settlement in South Carolina, was born at Abbeville, South Carolina, March 18, 1782. Having gained distinction at the bar, he was sent to congress in 1811, where he soon made himself the leader of the war-party against England. Author of the tariff of 1816, so favourable to his native state, he in 1817 was named minister of war by President Monroe, and reduced the confused state of affairs in his department to order, and made a great reduction in the expenditure of the army without sacrificing its efficiency. This early part of C.'s career was marked by broad and patriotic views, to which his subsequent preference of southern interests presented an unfavourable contrast. The tariff of 1828 not being very favourable to the Southern States, C. still adhered to the government, hoping that the president, Jackson, would veto the measure; but as this hope was disappointed, C. went to South Carolina, and there (1829) carried in the legislature the notorious resolution, that any state in the Union might annul an act of the Federal govern ment.' To this decision, Virginia, Georgia, and Alabama gave in their adhesion, and threatened a dissolution of the Union. President Jackson promptly used energetic measures to make this resolution of no effect. C. lost popularity, and despairing of reaching the presidency, resigned his vice-presidency; but soon afterwards was elected into the senate. In 1838, he delivered his famous speech on slavery, and continued to agitate on behalf of the slave-holding interest and for a dissolution of the Union, both with voice and pen, until his death, which took place at Washington, March 31, 1850. In his private character, C. was blameless; but in his career as a statesman he is understood to have implanted in the minds of his partisans those principles which culminated in the late war for the dissolution of the Union. During many years, he had been employed in writing his work on The Philosophy of Government, in which he vindicates the doctrine of state sovereignty, and which, along with other works, was posthumously published. CALIA'NO, a small town of the Austrian Tyrol, situated on the left bank of the Adige, about 9 miles south of Trent. It figures in history as the place where the Austrian archduke, Sigismund, won a signal victory over the Venetians in 1487. Being a place of considerable military importance, it was also contested in the campaigns of 1797 and 1809. CA'LICO-PRINTING is that department of the art of dyeing which takes cognizance of the production of a coloured pattern on cloth. It appears to have been first practised at Calicut in India-hence the term calico; and the pallampoors, or large cotton chintz counterpanes, which have been manufactured in the East Indies for centuries, are evidence of the successful practice of the art in that country. From the East Indies, the art spread to Asia Minor and the Levant, thence to Augsburg in Bavaria; from whence, at the beginning of the 18th c., it spread to Alsace in France, to Switzerland, and ultimately to England and Scotland. The term is strictly applicable to the production of coloured patterns on cotton cloth or calico; but as now employed, it includes all the processes followed in the formation of a coloured pattern on cotton, linen, worsted, and silk goods, as also mixtures of two or more of these, such as the fabric called de laine, which is composed of cotton and worsted. The first operation connected with the printing of cloth is the removal of the surface-hairs or minute threads which communicate a fibrous down or nap to the surface of the cloth, and if allowed to remain, would interfere with the uniform application of the colours. The surface down is got rid of by the process of singeing, during which the cloth is drawn over a red-hot iron or copper bar or plate, or through a series of gas jets. The apparatus generally used for hot-plate singeing consists of a times ridged on the surface. The cloth having prefurnace surmounted by a metal plate, which is someviously been joined at the ends, to make a long length, and been placed on a winch-roller, is first brought in contact with roller brushes, which raise the nap on the cloth, then passes over the white-hot metal cylindrical bar, and is wound on to a second winchroller. The process is repeated twice on the face of the cloth, being the surface to be printed on, and once on the back. Gas-singeing is accomplished by drawing the cloth through brushes, and then small holes, or slit from end to end, so that the gas over a horizontal pipe, perforated with rows of issuing therefrom burns as a narrow sheet of flame. The cloth is not only allowed to come in contact with the burning gas, but the flame is transmitted through the cloth, and a suction-apparatus is often placed immediately above, so as to draw the flame through more effectually. When well singed, the cloth undergoes the process of bleaching (q. v.), and is thereafter calendered. See CALENDERING. There are several modes of applying the colours to cloth, and these are respectively named-1. The Madder style; 2. The Padding style; 3. Topical style; 4. Resist or Reserve style; 5. Discharge style; and 6. China blue or pottery style. These various processes are at one in being intended to fix upon the cloth the different colours; but they differ from each other more or less in the several steps through which the cloth is passed, though occasionally there is little or no line of separation; and at times, the cloth is treated by one method, and subsequently by another style. CA'LIBRE, or CA'LIBER, is a technical name for the diameter of the bore of a firearm, whether a piece of ordnance or a small-arm. The ordnance The madder style is that in which a certain from which solid shot are projected are usually fixing agent or mordant is printed on the cloth, denoted by the weight of each shot, as 24-pounder, | which is then introduced into the colouring matter 68-pounder, &c.; but mortars, and such guns as in a dye-vat, when the mordant, having an attracproject shell or hollow shot, are more usually tion alike for the fibre of the cloth and for the denoted by the C., such as 13-inch mortar, 10-inch shell-gun, &c. The C. of the chief kinds of firearm will be noticed under the proper headings; but it may here be observed, generally, that the C. of English ordnance has been greatly increased within the last thirty years, partly by boring up old guns, and partly by casting new. colouring matter, acts the part of glue or paste, and cements the colour to the cloth. Originally, madder was the only colouring substance employed in this style; but now-a-days, by far the greater number of dye-stuffs, vegetable and animal, including cochineal, logwood, &c., are attached to cloth in this manner. The fixing agents or mordants generally |