with her two brothers and with her own father. She then married, in 1498, Alfonso, Duke of Biscaglia, a natural son of Alfonso II. of Naples; but he was assassinated by her brother Cæsar in 1501. In September of the same year, she married Alfonso of Este, who afterwards inherited the Duchy of Ferrara. She died in 1520. Like her brother Cæsar, she shrank from no crime; but she also was a patroness of art and learning, and upon this account homage was paid to her by Pietro Bembo and other poets of that time.

BO'RGO, a name given to a number of towns and villages in Italy and the Southern Tyrol, and indicating the growth of the town or village around a castle or castellated rock, the original Borgo. See BOROUGH. Thus, B. di val Sugāna is a place of 3500 inhabitants, with a castellated hill, in the Tyrol; B. Lavezzano is an Italian town in the province of Novara, with about 3000 inhabitants; B. San Donino, in the province of Parma, with 10,000 in habitants; B. San Sepolchro, in the province of Arezzo, with 8000 inhabitants, &c.

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BORING, as a process in carpentry and in the working of metals, is performed in a variety of ways. For boring holes in wood the carpenter makes use of awls, which simply displace a portion of the wood, and of gimlets, augers, and bits of various kinds, these last being applied by means of the crank-shaped instrument called a brace. All these are too familiar to need description. The boring of holes in metal plates for making attachments, is effected by means of drills driven by machinery. The annexed figure shews the essential parts of such a boring machine. The drill is inserted in the end of a vertical spindle, P, which revolves in a fixed frame, and is driven by the bevel-wheels, G. The metal to be bored is placed on a table or other Boring Machine. support below the drill; and the up and down motion, or end-pressure and off-action, of the drill is effected by the hand-gear, O, N, turning the screw M; which being coupled to the top of the spindle at L, presses it down or raises it, according to the way it is turned. The spindle slides vertically in the collar forming the axis of the bevel wheel, but is carried round with it by means of the pin I, which projects into a groove seen at J.

P

The Boring of Cannon and of Cylinders for steam-engines is most conveniently described under CANNON-FOUNDING; see also LATHE.

BORING, applied to the earth and to rocks, has two chief uses. 1. For Draining.-In some districts, owing to the existence, near the surface, of a bed of clay impervious to water, the surface-water is retained in hollows, of greater or less extent. The expense of deep draining has been so great as to induce proprietors to neglect such land, but this expense has lately been avoided by leading drains to the lowest portion of the hollow, and then opening a bore through the clay to the pervious strata of sand or gravel beneath. This is done by a simple instrument, an auger of 24 or 3 inches in diameter, wrought by means of a cross-bar by one or two men.

2. For Artesian wells, and for the discovery of the mineral contents of the earth.-As the borings for these purposes are performed in the same manner, it is unnecessary to give them separate notices. The object in boring for Artesian wells is to open a passage for the escape of water from water-logged strata. See ARTESIAN WELLS. In the search for minerals, B. is had recourse to as a cheap method of discovering the mineral wealth of a district, and whether the quantity and quality of the contained minerals are such as to make the working remunerative. It should, however, never be undertaken without a previous geological survey of the locality; the neglect of this has caused an immense loss of time and money in futile searches for into Silurian and Old Red Sandstone strata, in search minerals, as in the innumerable cases of bores driven for coal. B. is also of use even after the presence of coal has been ascertained, to determine the most advantageous position for sinking the shaft by which the coal is to be drawn up. The general method of operating is as follows: The boring instru ment consists of an iron shank, having a cross-bar at the top and a hollow screw at the bottom; to this all the successive B. instruments are fastened. A simple chisel is first attached to the screw, and one or two men press upon the cross-bar, and at the same time force it round like an auger; while another workman, by means of a lever erected overhead, with a chain descending from it to the cross-bar, gives an up and down motion to the instru ment. When the chisel becomes clogged, from the accumulation of material which it has loosened, it is exchanged for a cylindrical auger, provided with a valve, which scoops out the separated material; and thus by alternate chopping and scooping the work is carried on. The nature of the strata is determined with considerable facility and certainty by examining the fragments brought up by the auger. As the work advances, successive lengths of rod are screwed on at the upper end. Three poles are erected over the well, for the purpose of elevating the rods, to permit the change of the tools.

The cost of B. varies with the material through which the operation is carried on. In strata of moderate hardness, the cost is about 10s. a fathom for the first 10 fathoms, and an additional 68. for each 5 fathoms beyond.

A simple method of B. has been long in use among the Chinese, by which the great loss of time, arising from the screwing and unscrewing the rods, at each elevation of the chisel or auger, is saved. The chisel and scooping instrument are fastened to a rope, which is alternately elevated and allowed to descend by the simple force of gravity; the instrument thus forces its way through the ground. In the softer rocks of the newer formations this method has been successfully employed in boring for Artesian wells.

A still greater saving in time and money has been obtained by a process invented by M. Fauvelle, and described by him before the British Association in 1846. His apparatus consists of a hollow boringrod, formed of wrought-iron tubes screwed end to end, armed at the lower end with a hollow perforating tool. The upper end of the hollow rod is connected with a force-pump by a flexible tube. By means of the force-pump a current of water is sent down the rod into the bore hole as it is sunk, and the water coming up again brings with it all the drilled particles, so that, except for the renewal of the perforating tool, the rods do not require to be elevated. M. Fauvelle found, by experience, that when he was passing through gravel, or required to bring up considerable masses of broken-off rock, it was better to inject the water by the bore-hole and

edgings.

and Sarawak (25,000).

The Portuguese effected a settlement in 1690 at Banjermassin; from whence they were, however, soon expelled. The Dutch succeeded in concluding a treaty of commerce with the princes of Banjermassin; and in 1643 erected a fort and factory, a second in 1778 at Pontianak, and others since. The British made unsuccessful attempts in 1702 and 1774 to effect a settlement in B.; but have, within the last twenty years, acquired a preponderating influence on the north-western coast. This has been in a great measure owing to the enterprise of Sir James Brooke (q. v.) and his vigorous government as rajah of Sarawak, and in part also to the occupation of Labuan (q. v.) as a colony and naval station. The British government has, however, recently refused, upon Sir James Brooke's retirement from Sarawak, to annex it to the British empire. The piracy carried on by the inhabitants of B. has often demanded severe chastisement, and piratical flotillas have been destroyed by the British. BO'RNHOLM, an island in the Baltic Sea, belonging to Denmark, and situated about 90 miles east from Seeland, and half-way between the island of Rügen and the Swedish coast, lat. 54° 59'-55° 18' N., long. 14° 42'-15° 10′ E. Area, including three small islands in its vicinity, about 230 square miles, with a population above 29,000. It is rocky, and traversed from north to south by a high mountainridge, the slope of which is in great part a waste heath, but elsewhere it is not unfertile, and agriculture and cattle husbandry are successfully prosecuted. High cliffs, sand-banks, and breakers, make the coast dangerous. The most notable product of the island is porcelain clay, with which the porcelain manufacture of Copenhagen is carried on. The capital of the island is Rönne, or Rottum, on the western coast, a place of 4500 inhabitants.

BO'RNING-PIECE (Fr. borner, to bound), a common and very simple implement, used by gardeners in laying out grounds, to make the surface either level or of perfectly regular slope. It consists of two slips of board, one about 18 inches long, and the other about 4 feet, the shorter fastened by the middle to one end of the longer, and at right angles to it. One B. being placed at one end of a line drawn in the piece of ground which is being laid out, with the edge of the shorter slip of board along the line, and the longer slip erect, others of the same size are similarly placed at the other end and in other parts of the line; and the requisite uniformity of surface is obtained by filling up with earth, or removing it, until on looking along their

250

BO'RNU, a powerful state of Central Africa, extending between lat. 10° and 15° N., and long. 12° and 18° E., and bounded on the E. by Lake Tsad, S. by Mandara, W. by Hausa, and N. by Kanem and the Sahara. The greater part of the country is perfectly level, and much of it is liable to be overflowed in the rainy season, which lasts from October to April, when fevers and other diseases consequently prevail. The heat from March to June is excessive, ranging from 104° to 107° F. The two principal rivers are the Shary and The soil is fertile, and although the cultivation is the Yeou or Yo, both of which fall into Lake Tsad. very imperfect, produces plentiful crops of maize, millet, barley, rice, various kinds of pulse, cotton, horses, buffaloes, oxen, sheep, &c. Wild beasts, as and indigo. The inhabitants possess elephants, lions, panthers, &c., are very numerous, having their chief haunts in the forests which occur only in the vicinity of the rivers, and which abound also in bees are extremely plentiful. The country produces birds of many kinds, snakes, crocodiles, &c. Wild no iron, that which is used being brought from Mandara. Much care is bestowed upon the manufacture of coats-of-mail, both for horses and their riders. The only other manufacture carried to any considerable extent is that of cotton cloth, which is dyed with beautiful blue stripes by means of indigo, The population, and much exported to Fezzan. which is estimated at from eight to nine millions, are mostly of Negro race, and called Kanowry. The ruling race, called Shouas, are of Arab descent, and bigoted Mohammedans; but many traces of Fetishism remain among the masses. they have of civilisation is derived from the Arabs. The slave-trade is eagerly prosecuted, and gives occasion to many warlike expeditions. B. appears to have existed as a state for many centuries, but in the beginning of the present century it was conquered by the Fellatahs, whose yoke, however, was soon shaken off, under the leadership of a fanatic faki, named Mohammed el Amin, whose services were called in by the sultan. The Bornuese afterwards transferred their allegiance from the sultan to Mohammed, whose descendant now rules in Bornu.

Whatever

BORO BUDDOR (the Great Buddha), the ruin of a splendid Buddhist temple in Java, residency Kadu, regency Magelang, and district Minoreh, near the junction of the Ello and Progo, is the most elaborate monument of the Buddhist style of architecture anywhere existing. Buddhism (q. v.) was early introduced into Java, and Javanese chronicles place the building of B. B. in the beginning of the 7th century. The figure (copied from Fergusson's Handbook of Architecture) repreof the other half of the building. It is a pyramid sents a section through one half, and an elevation of a square form, each side at the base measuring 600 feet, and consists of seven walls, which are built like the steps of a stair up a hill. Between the walls are narrow terraces running round the building. The walls are richly ornamented with statuary. Outside are niches, each of which is occupied by a statue of Buddha, larger than life, seated in the usual attitude, with his legs crossed under the body. The number of these figures is about 400. Between each of these are bas-reliefs, representing the god in the same attitude, besides architectural ornaments and carvings of all sorts. Below the niches, on the lower story, is an immense bas-relief running round the whole building, repre

from civitas, favouring the Roman view; whilst B. from the root above indicated, and town, from the Saxon tun or dun, a fortified hill, support the Teutonic. But the discussion forms a branch of a very wide subject, which has divided recent writers into two opposite schools, and of which we can here only indicate the existence. On the Roman side, Sir Francis Palgrave is the most uncompromising, and Mr Allen, as it seems to us, the more judicious champion. The Teutonic side is espoused by most of the Anglo-Saxon scholars of England, and in general by German writers. But from whatever source derived, that the boroughs of England existed, not as aggregates of houses merely, but as corporate bodies, in the Saxon time, is now generally admitted. The B. system of Scotland is also of great antiquity; 'A Hanse, or confederation of boroughs for mutual defence and the protection of trade, existed in Scotland, and was known by this name in the reign of David I., about a century before the formation of the Hanseatic League of the continental cities; and the famous burgh laws date from about the same period. This code of Scotch burghal regulation,' in Mr Innes's opinion, though collected in the reign of David, and sanctioned by him, was the result of the experience of the towns of England and Scotland;' and he goes on to shew the very close resemblance between these laws and the burghal usages of Newcastle, and even of Winchester, which seems to suggest their common Saxon origin. Mr Innes speaks favourably of the B. life of our ancestors; and he considers the burgh domestic architecture, of which monuments

remain sufficient to shew that the burgess of the Reformation period lived in greater decency and comfort than the laird, though without the numerous following, which no doubt gave dignity

if it diminished food. I am not sure that this class

has gone on progressively, either in outward signs of comfort, or in education and accomplishment, equal to their neighbours. The reason, I suppose, is obvious. The Scotch burgher, when successful, does not set himself to better his condition and his

family within the sphere of his success, but leaves it, and seeks what he deems a higher." In confirmation of this view, Mr Innes elsewhere mentions that many of the old citizen-merchants of Edinburgh had studied at the university, and appear in the list of graduates.'

Borough, in England, is properly a city or other town that sends burgesses to parliament a privilege, the nature and extent of which will be explained under PARLIAMENT (q. v.); and in this sense it is also called a parliamentary borough. But in the interpretation clause of the Municipal Reform Act, 5 and 6 Will. c. 76, s. 142, the word borough is declared, for the purposes of the act, to mean a city, borough, port, cinque port, or town corporate, and whether sending representatives to parliament or

not. See MUNICIPALITY.

BOROUGHBRIDGE, a town in West Riding, Yorkshire, on the right bank of the Ure, here navigable for small-craft, 17 miles north-west of York. It arose simultaneously with the decline of Aldborough, 14 mile to the east, soon after the Conquest, when the great north road was diverted from Aldborough to this place. Its chief trade is in agricultural produce and hardware. Pop. (1871) 2508. Edward II., in 1321, defeated the Earl of Lancaster here. Near B. are three immense Druid stones, called the Devil's Arrows,' 16 to 22 feet high.

BOROUGH ENGLISH is a custom that prevails in some ancient boroughs in England, according to which the youngest son inherits the property within borough in preference to his elder brothers. The

reason assigned for it is, that the youngest son, on account of his tender age, is not so capable as his elder brothers to maintain himself. A posthumous son is entitled to this privilege, and dispossesses his elder brother. The right of representation also exists with reference to it, for should the youngest son die in his father's lifetime leaving a daughter, she will inherit the property. This custom obtains in the manor of Lambeth, Surrey, in the manors of Hackney, St John of Jerusalem in Islington, Heston, and Edmonton in Middlesex, and in other counties. See CUSTOM, GAVELKIND, INHERITANCE.

BOROUGH FUND. This is a fund which is

expressly defined by the Municipal Corporations Act, 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 76, by which it is declared that the rents and profits of all hereditaments, and the interest, dividends, and annual proceeds of all moneys, dues, chattels, and valuable securities belonging or payable to any body corporate named in conjunction with a borough in the schedules, or to any member or officer thereof, in his corporate offence against this act (the application of which has capacity, and every fine or penalty for every not been already provided for), shall be paid to the treasurer of such borough; and all the moneys which he shall so receive shall be carried by him to the account of a fund to be called 'The Borough Fund;' and such fund, subject to certain payments and deductions, shall be applied towards the payment of the salary of the mayor, and of the recorder, police magistrate, town-clerk, treasurer, and other officers. Corporations may now, under certain checks, maintain parliamentary and legal proceedings at the expense of the borough fund, 35 and 36 authorised by statute are not to be competed with Vict. c. 91. But existing gas and water companies in this way.

The Court of Chancery exercises jurisdiction over the property of corporations in boroughs, which, since the Municipal Corporations Act, are considered to hold their property in trust for charitable uses; and the trusts are applicable as well to the personal as to the real estate. See Grant on Corporations, 1850; and see FUND.

BOROUGH JUSTICES were first created in the time of Charles I. Under the Municipal Corporations Act, 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 76, these justices consist of the mayor during his year of office, and for one year after it determines; the recorder ex officio; and such persons as the crown may appoint by commission. Their duties cannot be delegated; and before acting, they must make the same declaration, and take the same oaths as the recorder does on entering his office. See JUSTICES.

BOROUGH LAWS, in Scottish legal history, relative to boroughs or burghs, which have long was the name given to a collection of ancient laws ceased to have any force, but serve to throw light on the ancient manners and customs of the country. The authenticity of these B. L. is beyond question; they are universally allowed to have been enacted in the reign of King David in the 12th century. See REGIAM MAJESTATEM.

BOROUGH RATE is a rate raised and levied

within borough by order of the council of the same; and it has been decided by the Court of Exchequer that such rate is valid, though not made in public. By the 92d section of the Municipal Corporations Act, 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 76, where there is a deficiency of the borough fund (q. v.), the borough council is authorised and required from time to time to order a B. R. in the nature of a county rate (q. v.) to be made within their borough, for which purpose the council shall have all the