BLUMENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH, a very eminent naturalist, was born at Gotha, 11th May 1752. He studied at Jena and Göttingen, in the latter of which universities he became extraordinary professor in 1776, and ordinary professor in 1778. Here he lectured for fifty years on natural history, comparative anatomy, physiology, and the history of medicine. In 1785, consequently before Cuvier, he made natural history dependent on comparative anatomy. His Manual of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology has been translated into almost all the principal languages of Europe. The natural history of man was always his favourite study; and his Collectio Craniorum Diversarum Gentium, commenced in 1791, and completed in 1808, gave to the learned world the result of his observations on the skulls of different races, of which he had an extensive collection (see ETHNOLOGY). He published many other works on natural history, all of which were favourably received; for, both as a writer and a lecturer, he was eminently successful. His Manual of Natural History, indeed, has gone through 12 editions. Towards the end of the 18th c., he visited England, where he met with a distinguished reception from the most famous naturalists. On the 19th September 1825, his friends celebrated the jubilee of his doctorate, presented him on the occasion with a medal struck on purpose, and founded an exhibition in his name, the proceeds of which were to assist young physicians and naturalists in the prosecution of their researches by travel. In 1835, the increasing infirmities of age compelled him to resign his academical functions. He died on the 22d January 1840.

BLU'NDERBUSS is a kind of short musket with a very wide bore, sufficient to take in several shot or bullets at once. It has a limited range, but is very destructive at close quarters. As a military weapon, it is chiefly of service in defending passages, door-ways, staircases, &c. Some of the English and German troopers in the 17th c. were armed with the B.; but the carbine has since nearly superseded this weapon.

BLUSHING, a sudden reddening of the face, neck, and breast, owing to some mental shock, most commonly of the character of humiliation or shame. The nature and cause of this effect have been recently elucidated by physiological researches. It is produced by an increased flow of blood into the capillary vessels over the parts where the blush extends. Besides reddening the complexion, it creates a sensible augmentation of heat in those parts. The feeling that accompanies the state is of a distressing kind.

The phenomenon of B. is part of a general influence exerted on the capillary circulation by mental causes operating through the brain. The experiments whereby the existence of this influence has been established, may be described as follows: The small blood-vessels, by which the blood is brought into proximity with the various tissues of the body, are kept in a state of balanced distension between two forces: the one the propulsive power of the heart's action, which fills and distends them; the other, an influence derived from the nervous centres, and acting upon the muscular fibres so as to contract the vessels. The first of the two forces the agency of the heart-is quite well

understood: it is simply like the case of distending the hose of a fire-engine by working the pump, and driving the water along. The counteracting force of the nerve-centres is proved by the following experiments: When the sympathetic nerve proceeding to the vessels of the head and face of an animal is cut, there follows congestion of the bloodvessels with augmented heat over the whole surface supplied by the nerve. redder; a thermometer inserted in the nostril shews an increase of temperature, the sign of a greater quantity of blood flowing into the capillaries. The inference from the experiment is, that, from the withdrawal of a counterpoise, the force that distends the small blood-vessels that is to say, the heart's action -has an unusual predominance. It is further proved that this nervous influence, acting upon the minute the nerve-centres lodged in the head, for, by cutting muscular fibres of the small vessels, proceeds from the connection between the brain and the ganglion in the neck, from which the above-mentioned nerve is derived, the same restraining influence is arrested, and the congestion takes place. By stimulating the the vessels shrinking by the galvanic contraction of divided nerve galvanically, the suffusion disappears, their muscular coats.

The ear is seen to become

The agency now described is of a piece with the action of the brain upon involuntary muscles generally, as the heart and the intestinal canal, and by it many organic functions-digestion, nutrition, absorption, &c.—are affected by those changes in the cerebral substance that accompany mental states. It is known that mental excitement has an immediate influence in all those functions; one set of passions, such as fear, tend to derange them, while joy and exhilaration operate favourably upon

them.

To apply these observations to the case in hand. Supposing a person in the average mental condition, and something to arise which gives a painful shock to the feelings-a piece of ill news, a reproach from some one whose good opinion is much valued, an open shame, or the fear of it, a fit of remorse, an occasion of grief-the pain is accompanied with a sudden loss, or waste, or decrease of cerebral power; none of the functions that the brain aids in maintaining is so strongly stimulated as before; and in particular, that stream of nervous energy which balances the heart's action in regulating the distension of the small blood-vessels, is abated, the abatement being made apparent in the redness and heat over the face and neck. In a great stroke of mental depression, the influence is of a much more extensive kind, though still of the same nature essentially as regards the enfeeblement of the nervous energy, and may lower the action of the heart itself: in which case there will be a widespread pallor, perhaps without a blush. In all probability, it is when the loss of cerebral influence extends only to the relaxation of the muscular fibres of the small vessels, leaving the heart in its usual vigour, that the state of B. is most fully manifested. Hence it is more apt to arise out of the smaller modes of painful apprehension, than from the more serious calamities that prostrate the system throughout.

It is said that, in the Circassian slave-market, a young woman that blushes fetches a higher price. Some complexions do not shew the increased flow of blood in this way, and all persons are not equally sensitive to the cerebral shock that causes it.

BO TREE, the name given in Ceylon to the PEEPUL (q. v.) of India (Ficus religiosa). It is held sacred by the Buddhists, and planted close by every temple, attracting almost as much veneration as the statue of Buddha itself.-The B. T. of the

although Anaconda seems to be originally, like B., the name of a serpent of the old world-is to be found where rivers or narrow lagoons are overshadowed by gloomy forests. Perhaps the want of sufficient supplies of water, more than the greater cold of the climate, may account for the short time that specimens of the Boida brought to Europe have generally lived in confinement.

After a repast, these serpents spend a considerable time in a state of comparative torpidity-several weeks generally elapsing before they waken up to require a new supply-and in this lethargic state they are easily killed. When they do waken up, the demands of appetite seem to be very urgent. Many of our readers must still remember the interest excited some years ago concerning a B. in the London Zoological Gardens, which, to the astonishment of its keepers, swallowed its rug; but this, after a trial of a week or two, it found indigestible, and the animal then gratified public curiosity by a reversal of the process of deglutition.

The head in the Boida is thick, yet somewhat elongated; the eyes are small; the body is thickest in the middle; the tail usually has a blunt termination. The scales are numerous and rather small. The colours are various, and in many of the species rather bright and elegantly disposed. The true boas have the plates underneath the tail single, whilst in the pythons they are double. The species to which the name Boa Constrictor is appropriated, is far from being one of the largest, seldom attaining a length of more than twelve feet. It is common in Surinam and Brazil, where its skin is used for making boots and saddle-cloths. The name Boa Constrictor is, however, popularly extended to almost any of the species.-The number of species, whether in the genus or in the family, is far from being well ascertained.

Boas are much infested by intestinal worms, which appear often to cause their death. The excrement of the B.-the urine and fæces being combined as in other reptiles, and voided by a single vent-is a solid white substance, and consists mainly of urate of ammonia, accompanied by phosphate of lime (bone-earth). It is employed as an easy source of

uric acid.

BOADICE'A, a warrior-queen of the Iceni, a tribe inhabiting the eastern coast of Britain, in the time of the Romans. She flourished after the middle of the 1st century. Prasutagus, her husband, who died A. D. 60, or 61, had left his wealth jointly to the Roman Emperor Nero, and to his two daughters, hoping that by this artifice his kingdom would be protected from oppression; but the Roman soldiery, taking advantage of the defenceless condition of the country, began to plunder unscrupulously. B. herself was scourged, her daughters were violated, and the noblest among the Iceni were treated as slaves. These outrages soon drove the Britons to revenge. B. gathered round her a large army; attacked and captured the Roman colony of Camalodunum; defeated Petilius Cerealis, legate of the ninth legion, who was marching to its relief; took Londinium and Verulamium; and destroyed, it is said, somewhere about 70,000 Romans, many of them by torture. Suetonius, the Roman governor of Britain, now advanced at the head of 10,000 men against B., who, we are informed, had under her command no less than 263,000. A dreadful battle ensued (62 A. D.), in which, according to Tacitus, 80,000 Britons perished, and only 400 Romans. These figures, of course, cannot be trusted; but the victory must have been decisive, as it finally established the authority of the Romans in Britain. B., overwhelmed with despair, committed suicide.

their collective capacity, who have the management of some public office or department, bank, railway, charity, or, indeed, of any other trust. Thus, the Commissioners of Customs, when met for the transaction of business, are called the B. of Customs; the Lords of the Treasury, the B. of Treasury; Commissioners of Excise, B. of Excise; directors of railways, B. of Directors; poor-law guardians, B. of Guardians, &c. See CUSTOMS, TREASURY, &c.

BOARD, BOARDING. In nautical language, board is used with many significations. Besides its ordinary application to a plank of wood, B. is a space or portion of sea over which a ship passes in tacking; hence the phrases, to make a good board,' to make short boards,' 'to make a stern-board,' 'to leave the land on back-board,' &c.—all of which refer to the direction of a ship's movement at a particular time and place. Again, board or aboard relates to the interior of the ship, in such phrases as to go aboard,' 'to heave overboard,' &c.

But the most important of these meanings is that which relates to the boarding of an enemy's ship, or making a forcible entry for the sake of capturing it. Whenever this bold operation is determined on, certain seamen are told off to act as boarders. It is very rarely that, between two men-of-war, this operation is ventured on; it would, in most cases, be too perilous to the assailants, who more frequently conquer by cannon and musketry. Boarding is, in most instances, attempted by privateers against merchantmen, where the defenders are few in number. The assailant well considers all the circumstances for and against him-the relative sizes of the two vessels, the relative strength of the crews, the state of the wind and sea, and the chances of escape if foiled. Besides the pistols, cutlasses, and boarding-pikes of the seamen, there are provided powder-flasks for producing smoke and confusion on the enemy's deck, and shells called stink-pots, for producing an intolerable stench. The moment and the spot being selected, the fuses of the flasks and stink-pots are lighted; these combustibles are thrown upon the enemy's deck; and while the fire, smoke, and stench are doing their work by confusing the enemy, the boarders climb on board, and gain a mastery by their personal prowess-that is, if the calculations of relative strength have been duly made. Sometimes terrible hand-to-hand encounters take place on deck before victory decides for or against the assailants.

General Sir Howard Douglas, in his able work on 'Warfare with Steam,' expresses an opinion that steam war-ships are likely sometimes to come to close quarters; and that, on that account, they should be provided with a larger quota of marines and of boarding-implements than have hitherto been supplied to sailing ships. The defenders, he adds, should construct loopholed barricades across the terminations of the quarter-deck and the forecastle, to prolong the defence within board. The French naval officers, it is known, look forward to a great increase in all such military resources on board war-steamers; and Sir Howard endeavours to impress similar convictions on the English authorities.

BOARD OF ADMIRALTY, a government department which has the management of all matters concerning the British navy. In the article ADMIRAL, the steps are noticed by which the duties of the Lord High Admiral, in former days, were transferred to a Board of Commissioners. constitution and functions of this body will now be described.

The

The boar's head 'erased,' according to heraldic phraseology, is a well-known cognizance of a number of old families, particularly the Gordons; it also formed the sign of a tavern at Eastcheap, London, which has been immortalised by Shakspeare. On the site of this famed tavern now stands the statue of William IV.

BOAST (Fr. Ebaucher), a word in use with sculptors. To B., as its French original implies, is to block out a piece of stone or wood, so as to form a rude approach to the ultimate figure, leaving the smaller details to be worked out afterwards. Ornamental portions of buildings are often inserted in their places in this condition, and frequently remain so if they are in an obscure position.

BOAT is the general name for a small open vessel. Boats differ, however, greatly one from another. They may be slight or strong, sharp or flat-bottomed, decked or undecked, swift for despatch or roomy for cargo, ornamental for pleasure or plain for hard service, deep or light of draught for deep or shallow water. The chief varieties supplied to ships of war are the following-Long-B.: the largest B. of a ship, furnished with mast and sails; it is either armed and equipped, to render warlike service in certain situations, or it is employed to fetch water, wood, provisions, and heavy stores on board. Launch: longer and more flat-bottomed than the long-B.; being rowed with a greater number of oars, it makes more rapid progress up rivers. Barge: a long, narrow, light B., employed in carrying the principal officers to and from the ship; for other kinds of boats or vessels under this name, see BARGE. Pinnace: a B. for the accommodation of the inferior officers; it has usually eight oars, whereas the barge has ten or more. Cutter: broader, deeper, and shorter than the barge or pinnace; it is rowed with six oars, sometimes hoisting a sail, and is chiefly employed in carrying light stores, provisions, and crew. Jolly-B.: a smaller cutter, rowed with four oars instead of six. Yawl: small in size, and used for nearly the same purposes as cutters and jolly-boats. Gig: a long narrow B., rowed with six or eight oars, and employed by the chief officer on expeditions requiring speed. Some of the abovenamed boats are diagonal-built for strength; the others are clincher-built, to be as light as possible. The largest ships of war carry boats of all these various kinds, varying in weight from 110 cwt. down to 10 cwt.; the smaller ships carry fewer; while merchant-ships have seldom more than threeexcept passenger-ships, which are bound by law to carry boats enough to save all the passengers and crew in case of disaster. There are other kinds of boats which do not belong to ships. See BOATING.

In reference to the legal regulation of boats in the merchant-service, the following are the chief

provisions: When a B. belongs to any ship or other vessel, the name of the vessel and of the place to which she belongs must be painted on the outside of the stern of the B., and the master's name within side the transom-the letters to be white or yellow on a black ground. Boats not belonging to ships or other vessels must be inscribed with the name of the owners and the port to which they belong. All boats having double sides or bottoms, or any secret places adapted for the concealment of goods, are liable to forfeiture.

The boats intended for the rescue of shipwrecked persons, or crews and passengers exposed to that danger, are described under LIFE-BOAT.

BOAT-FLY (Notonecta), a genus of insects of the order Hemiptera (q. v.), suborder, Heteroptera, and of the family of the Hydrocorise, or Waterbugs (q. v.). All of them, like the rest of the family, are aquatic insects. Their English name is derived from their boat-like form, eminently adapted for progression in water, and probably also from their remarkable habit of always swimming on their back-peculiar to the genus Notonecta, as restricted by recent entomologists—and of resting in this posture suspended at the surface of the water. The known species of this genus are not numerous. One of them, N. glauca (sometimes called the Water Boatman), is common in Britain: it is about half an inch long, (N. glauca). and varies considerably in colour; colours being black, brown, and gray. They fly but exhibits a general greenish tinge, the other well, but seldom use their wings. They move with difficulty on dry ground. When they descend into the water, they carry down a supply of air for respiration in a hollow between their folded wings. They feed on animal substances, and often kill and devour those of their own species.

Water Boatman

BOATING, the art of managing and propelling a boat. This is done either by means of oars or sails. As sailing is fully treated under the head of YACHTING, rowing only is dealt with here. The most ancient form of boat known to have been used in the British Islands is the coracle; it is still much used in Wales. The coracle is but a large wickerwork basket, covered with skins, or some thin waterproof substance stretched over the wicker-work, strengthened by a cross seat. Seated in one of these rude boats, with but a single paddle, it is astonishing with what dexterity the paddler will skim over broken water, and avoid dangers which would infallibly destroy a heavier or less manageable craft. From the coracle spring all the varied classes of boats now in use, either as pendants to ships, or as used for pleasure traffic or a means of conveyance upon our rivers and inland waters. The wherry next claims attention. There are many kinds of wherries, but we only notice the Thames wherry. This is stoutly built, and is constructed to carry about eight passengers. It is usually managed by one sculler or two oarsmen; it is almost entirely employed by watermen for the conveyance of passengers or pleasure-parties. The boats used for rowing as a sport or pastime are of a much lighter and sharper build. They are constructed of all sizes, to carry from twelve oarsmen down to a single sculler. Of this class of boats, for racing purposes, we have the 8, 6, 4, 2, and single pair oared boats; while in contests between single scullers, we have what is denominated the wager-boat-a boat so frail and light in its proportions, that none but a most experienced sculler can sit in one without danger of upsetting. For pleasure, we have another class of