have been the first person to see the immense value of the most marked of external characters, crystalline form, he did not, in fact, attach much importance to it. Perhaps he was in some measure fascinated by a fondness for those characters which he had himself systematized, and the study of which did not direct him to look for geometrical relations. However this may be, the glory of giving to Crystallography its just importance in Mineralogy is due to France: and the Treatise of Haüy, published in 1801, is the basis of the best succeeding works of mineralogy. In this work, the arrangement is professedly chemical; and the classification thus established is employed as the means of enunciating crystallographic and other properties. "The principal object of this Treatise," says the author," "is the exposition and development of a method founded on certain principles, which may serve as a framework for all the knowledge which Mineralogy can supply, aided by the different sciences which can join hands with her and march on the same line. It is worthy of notice, as characteristic of this period of Mixed Systems, that the classification of Haüy, though founded on principles so different from the Wernerian ones, deviates little from it in the general character of the divisions. Thus, the first Order of the first Class of Hauy is Acidiferous Earthy Substances; the first genus is Lime; the species are, Carbonate of Lime, Phosphate of Lime, Fluate of Lime, Sulphate of Lime, and so on.

Other Systems.-Such mixed methods were introduced also into this country, and have prevailed, we may say, up to the present time. The Mineralogy of William Phillips, which was published in 1824, and which was an extraordinary treasure of crystallographic facts, was arranged by such a mixed system; that is, by a system professedly chemical; but, inasmuch as a rigid chemical system is impossible, and the assumption of such a one leads into glaring absurdities, the system was, in this and other attempts of the same kind, corrected by the most arbitrary and lax application of other considerations.

It is a curious example of the difference of national intellectual character, that the manifest inconsistencies of the prevalent systems, which led in Germany, as we shall see, to bold and sweeping attempts at reform, produced in England a sort of contemptuous despair with regard to systems in general;—a belief that no system could be consistent or useful;—and a persuasion that the only valuable knowledge is the accumulation of particular facts. This is not the place to

7 Disc. Prél p. xvii.

Τ

Test Bukan 4 and 3 suts a vich s philosophoral shirt revuta: I separates voler siestades vici et net Östmashscie : joins together boles de mest Essmart and a hely my nstance is I beng 17 with no new. The rees of tasstinaticeS like that of Eliy sud not long be minored; but even better time had exposed the vestess of is gst:m. Hai? Imser had pointed set, nearly and without reserve," that a themical system is only one side of the subject, and supposes, as its counterpart, a science of external characters. In the mean time, the Wernerians were becoming more and more in love with the form which they had given to such a science. Indeed, the expertness which Werner and his scholars sequined in the use of external characters, justified some partiality for them. It is related of him, that, by looking at a piece of iron-ore, and poising it in his hand, he was able to tell, almost precisely, the proportion of pare metal which it contained. And in the last year of his life,' he had marked out, as the employment of the ensuing winter, the study of the system of Berzelius, with a view to find out the laws of combination as disclosed by external characters. In the same spirit, his pupil Breit

See his Disc. Prél

Frisch. Werner's Leben, p. 78.

Frisch 3.

haupt attempted to discover the ingredients of minerals by their peculiarities of crystallization. The persuasion that there must be some connexion between composition and properties, transformed itself, in their minds, into a belief that they could seize the nature of the connexion by a sort of instinet.

This opinion of the independency of the science of external characters, and of its sufficiency for its own object, at last assumed its complete form in the bold attempt to construct a system which should borrow nothing from chemistry. This attempt was made by Frederick Mohs, who had been the pupil of Werner, and was afterwards his successor in the school of Freiberg; and who, by the acute and methodical character of his intellect, and by his intimate knowledge of minerals, was worthy of his predecessor. Rejecting altogether all divisions of which the import was chemical, Mohs turned for guidance, or at least for the light of analogy, to botany. His object was to construct a Natural System of mineralogy. What the conditions and advantages. of a natural system of any province of nature are, we must delay to explain till we have before us, in botany, a more luminous example of such a scheme. But further; in mineralogy, as in botany, besides the Natural System, by which we form our classes, it is necessary to have an Artificial System, by which we recognize them ;-a principle which, we have seen, had already taken root in the school of Freiberg. Such an artificial system Mohs produced in his Characteristic of the Mineral Kingdom, which was published at Dresden in 1820; and which, though extending only to a few pages, excited a strong interest in Germany, where men's minds were prepared to interpret the full import of such a work. Some of the traits of such a "Characteristic" had, indeed, been previously drawn by others; as for example, by Hauly, who notices that each of his Classes has peculiar characters. For instance, his First Class (acidiferous substances,) alone possesses these combinations of properties; "division into a regular octohedron, without being able to scratch glass; specific gravity above 3.5, without being able to scratch glass." The extension of such characters into a scheme which should exhaust the whole mineral kingdom, was the undertaking of Mohs.

Such a collection of marks of classes, implied a classification previously established, and accordingly, Mohs had created his own mineral system. His aim was to construct it, as we shall hereafter see that other natural systems are constructed, by taking into account all the

* Dresdn. Auswahl, vol. ii. p. 97

resemblances and differences of the objects classified. It is obvious that to execute such a work, implied a most intimate and universal acquaintance with minerals ;-a power of combining in one vivid survey the whole mineral kingdom. To illustrate the spirit in which Professor Mohs performed his task, I hope I may be allowed to refer to my own intercourse with him. At an early period of my mineralogical studies, when the very conception of a Natural System was new to me, he, with great kindliness of temper, allowed me habitually to propose to him the scruples which arose in my mind, before I could admit principles which appeared to me then so vague and indefinite; and answered my objections with great patience and most instructive clearness. Among other difficulties, I one day propounded to hin this;-"You have published a Treatise on Mineralogy, in which you have described all the important properties of all known minerals. On your principles, then, it ought to be possible, merely by knowing the descriptions in your book, and without seeing any minerals, to construct a natural system; and this natural system ought to turn out identical with that which you have produced, by so careful an examination of the minerals themselves." He pondered a moment, and then he answered, "It is true; but what an enormous imagination (einbildungskraft, power of inward imagining), a man must have for such a work!" Vividness of conception of sensible properties, and the steady intuition (anschauung) of objects, were deemed by him, and by the Wernerian school in general, to be the most essential conditions of complete knowledge.

It is not necessary to describe Mohs's system in detail; it may suf ficiently indicate its form to state that the following substances, such as I before gave as examples of other arrangements, calespar, g sum, fluor spar, apatite, heavy spar, are by Mohs termed respectively. Rhombohedral Lime Haloide, Gyps Halvide, Octohedral Fluor Haloide, Rhombohedral Fluor Haloide, Prismatic Hal Baryte. These substances are thus referred to the Orders Haloide, and Baryte; to Generà Lime Haloide, Fluor Haloide, Hal Baryte; and the Species is an additional particularization.

Mohs not only aimed at framing such a system, but was also ambitious of giving to all minerals Names which should accord with the system. This design was too bold to succeed. It is true, that a new nomenclature was much needed in mineralogy: it is true, too, that it was reasonable to expect, from an improved classification, an improved nomenclature, such as had been so happily obtained in botany by the

reform of Linnæus. But besides the defects of Mohs's system, he had not prepared his verbal novelties with the temperance and skill of the great botanical reformer. He called upon mineralogists to change the name of almost every mineral with which they were acquainted; and the proposed appellations were mostly of a cumbrous form, as the above example may serve to show. Such names could have obtained general currency, only after a general and complete acceptance of the system; and the system did not possess, in a sufficient degree, that evidence which alone could gain it a home in the belief of philosophers, the coincidence of its results with those of Chemistry. But before I speak finally of the fortunes of the Natural-history System, I will say something of the other attempt which was made about the same time to introduce a Reform into Mineralogy from the opposite extremity of the science.

Sect. 2.-Chemical System of Berzelius and others.

IF the students of external characters were satisfied of the independence of their method, the chemical analysts were naturally no less confident of the legitimate supremacy of their principles: and when the beginning of the present century had been distinguished by the establishment of the theory of definite proportions, and by discoveries which pointed to the electro-chemical theory, it could not appear presumption to suppose, that the classification of bodies, so far as it depended on chemistry, might be presented in a form more complete and scientific than at any previous time.

The attempt to do this was made by the great Swedish chemist Jacob Berzelius. In 1816, he published his Essay to establish a purely Scientific System of Mineralogy, by means of the Application of the Electro-chemical Theory and the Chemical Doctrine of Definite Proportions. It is manifest that, for minerals which are constituted by the law of Definite Proportions, this constitution must be a most essential part of their character. The electro-chemical theory was called in aid, in addition to the composition, because, distinguishing the elements of all compounds as electro-positive and electronegative, and giving to every element a place in a series, and a place defined by the degree of these relations, it seemed to afford a rigorous and complete principle of arrangement. Accordingly, Berzelius, in his First System, arranged minerals according to their electro-positive element, and the elements according to their electro-positive rank;