thing new to the meaning.-And, as adding what is no addition, always amounts to a distinction without a difference, so likewise does disjoining what is not distinct; as,

"To be neither merciful nor compassionate, is unsuitable to the condition of man."

Here, to avoid verbiage, we must say, "Not to be merciful not to be compassionate, is unsuitable," &c. :-or, avoiding the repetition, "Not to be compassionate is unsuitable," &c.

In rhetoric, the earnestness of a speaker to make the most of a point, frequently produces a redundancy of words when nothing is added to the meaning .But in logic, such a redundancy is a fault, and, if, very palpable, will not answer the purpose even of the rhetorician. The following sentences are therefore faulty.

*

"This great politician desisted from, and renounced his designs, when he found them impracticable."

"He was of so high and independent a spirit, that he abhorred and detested being in debt."

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Though raised to an exalted station, he was a pattern of piety, virtue, and religion."

"His end soon approached; and he died with great courage and fortitude."

“He was a man of so much pride and vanity, that he despised the sentiments of others."

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Poverty induces and cherishes dependence; and depend ence increases and strengthens corruption."

“This man, on all occasions, treated his inferiors with great haughtiness and disdain.”

"There can be no regularity or order in the life and conduct of that man, who does not give and allot a due share of his time to retirement and reflection."

"Such equivocal and ambiguous expressions, mark a formed intention to deceive and abuse us."

"His cheerful, happy temper, remote from discontent, keeps up a kind of daylight in his mind, excludes every gloomy prospect, and fills it with a steady and perpetual serenity."

14. CONFUSION OF CROSS DIVISIONS.-A cross division is a division for some purpose, or on some principle, distinct from

*Taken from Murray's Exercises: a key for correcting the instances will be found in the Appendix.

another division. Thus, a bookbinder divides books into folio, quarto, octavo, duodecimo, &c.: a philosopher into poetical, historical, &c.: a philologist into Greek, Latin, English, French, &c. Now a logician would be guilty of a great error, if he were to confuse these several divisions by dividing books, in general, into the several species of poetical, historical, folio, quarto, Greek, Latin, &c.; for these are not divisions under one general head which includes them, but divisions under particular heads for special purposes. Suppose, therefore, that in a theme on History the writer should set out with a division into Sacred, Profane, Ancient, and Modern, he at once plunges into verbiage; because sacred history is not distinct from ancient, but happens to be included in it; and because profane history is not distinct from modern, but happens to include it. The divisions are nevertheless just, if he does not confuse the one set with the other, -We run into the same fault when we say,

"The human body is divided into the head, trunk, limbs, and vitals."

For the vitals are included in the head, or trunk, or both; and the division should be into "head, trunk, and limbs;" so that the vitals, if spoken of at all, may be taken in subordination to what includes them.

The following are other instances in which the fault is sufficiently apparent:

"The things brought out to me were some square, some white, some artificial, some round, some blue, some natural, and some red."

"He was a man of great temperance and high birth, very generous, and quick to discover fraud, of extensive riches and exalted virtue."

"In treating of Poetry, I shall consider it under the heads of Epic, Classical, Ancient, English, Lyric, Writtenin-Rhyme, Modern, Dramatic, and Written-in-blank-Verse."

"Men, as to constitution, temper, and habits, are either phlegmatic, gay, devoted to business, sanguine, gloomy, devoted to pleasure, or choleric."

ERRORS IN DETAIL WHICH COME UNDER THE GENERAL HEAD OF CONFUSED REASONING.

15. SAYING OTHER THAN IS MEANT. The faults now to

* A key for correcting them will be found in the Appendix.

be noticed are faults of expression; being faults of reasoning only so far as faulty expression can scarcely fail to cloud and confuse the reasoning. We assume Logic to be the art of developing knowledge for our own security and satisfaction; but always with a view of applying our skill, ultimately, to the purposes of rhetoric, that is of informing, convincing, and persuading others. Now if we say other than we mean, although what we mean may, in some sort, be present to our own understanding, and although others may not altogether mistake what we mean; yet there will, on both sides, be a degree of confusion, which it is among the objects of logic to prevent. The following examples, therefore, though faulty only in expression, are properly deemed illogical.

"Ambition is so insatiable, that it will make any sacrifice to attain its objects."

"As to be content with what we have, is to be truly rich, it follows that no covetous man is truly rich."

"Solon was a wise legislator; for all wise legislators suit their laws to the genius of their nation.”

Each of these examples exhibits a non-sequitur in expression ; but it is in expression only. The meaning which the reasoner designs to convey, and that which, in spite of the faulty expression, the hearer or reader receives, is the following: "Ambition is so insatiable, that, however much it gets, it will still desire more, and make any sacrifice to attain it." "As no one is truly rich but he who is content, it follows that no covetous man is truly rich." "Solon was a wise legislator; for all are wise legislators who suit their laws to the genius of their nation.”—The expression in each example may be made correct in another way, namely by foregoing the logical connection understood between the facts, and stating them as things that only happen to come together; as "Ambition is insatiable: it will make any sacrifice to attain its objects." be content with what we have, is to be truly rich: no covetous man is truly rich." "Solon was a wise legislator: he and all other wise legislators suit their laws to the genius of their nation." This way of correcting a non-sequitur is left to our choice in cases like these, when the fault was only in the expression, and not in point of fact: but we have no choice we must take the latter mode, when the non-sequitur is of the latter kind; as All vegetables grow; an animal

"To

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grows: :"'-we cannot connect these by any logical consequence; they must be left in their independent state, or joined in expression as we usually join things that happen to come together; for example, "All vegetables grow, and so does an animal." Again in proposing to join round and square, we find them irrelevant to any conclusion,-in other words they will not make sense, and therefore instead of saying a round square, we must leave them independent of each other's meaning, and say a round, and a square.—Returning now to examples in which the non-sequitur is only in the expression, we may indicate to the learner, as specimens in point, all those which were furnished in the Manual of Grammar (pages 92, 93,) to discriminate between grammar and logic. Thus, "He that was dead, sat up :"-Each being taken strictly, the two members of this sentence cannot unite and imply one sense: but the former member is neither meant nor received according to its strict import; and therefore it does unite with what follows. The same thing might be shown of all the other examples at the pages referred to; yet they all come under the censure of confused reasoning, (except one or two vindicated by rhetoric,) because in all of them the reasoner says other than he means.

It must be further borne in mind, that not only should an expression convey none other than is meant, but should likewise be free from a double meaning, though one of the meanings may be the one intended. Sometimes, as in the case of pretended prophecy, there may be a purpose in equivocation; but with such a purpose, logic is not concerned; and in correcting a few more examples* continued from the Manual of Grammar, the student will take care that each sentence shall convey one, and only one meaning.

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Pyrrhus the Romans shall I

say subdue."

"The duke yet lives that Henry shall depose."

"The rising tomb a lofty column bore."

"And thus the son the fervent sire addressed."

"And all the air a solemn stillness holds."

"He was mounted upon a hot and fiery steed, which his aspiring rider seemed to know.”

* Some of them are from Murray's Exercises: a key for the correction of each, is furnished in the Appendix.

"If this day happen to be Sunday, this form of prayer shall be used, and the fast day kept the next day following."

"A collection is making to protect and uphold such electors as refused, contrary to their desires and consciences, to vote for A. and B. regardless of threats, and unmindful of intimidation."

"He was more than commonly civil to me."

"You can only arrive in time by starting early."

"Though he had been charitable to others, he found but a few friends in his own extremity."

"Persons not having an income amounting to a hundred and fifty pounds a year, are not liable to the income-tax.” "The Romans understood liberty at least as well as we." "Theism can only be opposed to Polytheism or Atheism.” "These are not such designs as any man, who is born a Briton, in any circumstances, in any situation, ought to be ashamed or afraid to avow."

"The eagle killed the hen, and eat her in her own nest." "It has been said that not only Jesuits can equivocate." "You will not think that these people, when injured, have the least right to our protection."

"Solomon, the son of David, who built the temple of Jerusalem, was the richest monarch that reigned over the Jewish people."

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Solomon, the son of David, who was persecuted by Saul, was the richest monarch of the Jews."

"Lisias promised his father, never to abandon his friends.” "The Divine Being heapeth favour on his servants, ever liberal and faithful."

Every well-instructed scribe is like a housekeeper, who bringeth out of his treasure things new and old."

"Dryden makes a very handsome observation, on Ovid's writing a letter from Dido to Eneas, in these words."

"Imprudent associations disqualify us for the instruction or reproof of others.”

16. NOT DISTINGUISHING DIFFERENT SENSES OF THE SAME WORD. This fault is the opposite of one which was ranged under the general head of Verbiage; namely, a distinction without a difference. Our present title might be, a difference without a distinction; but it will be better to limit our examples to those which exhibit the fault in the particular way