make a proper use of it, it is the source of all happiness, and therefore since we are sensible of its worth, let us who possess it think ourselves unspeakably happy, and never think it too much trouble to obtain, for surely it is the least we can do for such a valuable benefit."

This production, deficient as it is in all the other requisites of good composition, is not without some evidence of real thinking. Let this, then, serve as an example of the first formal attempt in the art which is treated of in these pages. The correction of the exercise, with a clear understanding, on the pupil's part, of the nature and purpose of the corrections, will complete and constitute his first practical lesson in logic. Let him observe, then, that he has run on, from the beginning to the end of his exercise, without a single division; and that he has used no stop but the comma, till he has reached his full stop at the end. Now, though it is true that grammar is one thing in theory, and logic another, and that the stops are regulated by grammar and not by logic; yet grammar and logic go together in practice, and there cannot be confusion in the former, that does not tend to obscurity in the latter. Let him, therefore, look with the eye of a grammarian on his work, and he will see that grammatical construction is often complete, where he has put only a comma. Complete construction always requires one of the higher stops,—strictly the periodic or full stop, but at least the colon or semi-colon. The logical connection is not broken by these marks of grammatical completeness, but, on the contrary, is made clearer. Construction may and must frequently pause, while the logical process continues, supposing this process to be of any length: and these constructional pauses must be indicated by the usual points. Further, let the learner observe, that his line of argument naturally diverges from two points, namely, 1. The importance of education; and, 2. Our consequent duty as young students; so that the whole theme separates into two subjected themes, that ought to be implied, though not formally named, by a division or break in the writing, exhibiting the whole theme in two paragraphs. Thus by logical subdivision and grammatical division, with a few minor correc tions, the whole theme will take the following shape :

"On Education.

Education is the most important and essential concern of man. For let us reflect what a wild, savage creature he would be, without this inestimable blessing. He would not know the Author of his existence, to whom he is indebted for all his comforts. He would not be able to provide for himself. For it is not the same with man as it is with birds: they know, almost entirely by instinct, how to provide for themselves; but all knowledge necessary to man comes by education. It is education which lifts him from his helpless state, makes him an agreeable member of society, and prepares him for all happiness.

Since, then, education is so important, let us to whom it is offered think ourselves unspeakably happy, and never imagine we can employ too much pains to secure all its advantages. Let us reflect how very fortunate we are, in having friends both able and willing to provide the means of instruction; and let us show our gratitude by our willingness to learn; which is surely the least return we can make for benefits so valuable." キー

DISJOINTED REASONING.

4. Disjointed Reasoning is the development of knowledge in parts not properly connected with each other. The propositions may be separately true, but the truth of the one does not lead to, or flow from that of the other.

* Warned by the confusedness which appeared in his first attempt, and aiming at the greater distinctness of the corrected copy, the learner will, perhaps, at the next attempt, produce an exercise formed of sentences after the following

manner:

"On Friendship.

Friendship is a subject which has often employed the pen of the moralist. We all feel that friendship is necessary to our happiness. Many persons pretend to be influenced by friendship, who are incapable of

* See the second foot-note, page 180.

so noble a sentiment. Without a friend, the world," &c. &c.

Sentences of this kind do not form discourse :-they indeed all relate to the same subject or theme in one sense of the word, but they do not constitute a theme in the other sense:* they are so many distinct propositions, and ought indeed not to be written down in immediate succession, but with breaks in the manner of paragraphs, thus:

"Friendship is a subject that has often employed the pen of the moralist."

"We all feel that friendship is necessary to our happiness."

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Many persons pretend to be influenced by friendship, who are incapable of so noble a sentiment." This is the way to write maxims or proverbs, but a theme must be managed very differently. We must not start from one proposition to another which has no immediate relation to it, but consider in what way our knowledge may be further and further developed in the direction which the initiatory proposition indicates, till nothing more in this direction seems necessary to be said. Suppose a proposition should appear destitute of a purpose which can be thus carried out, we must either reject it altogether, or, by some addition, give it a purpose with relation to what we choose shall follow it. The first of the foregoing propositions will exemplify what is here meant," Friendship is a subject that has often employed the pen of the moralist.' It seems hardly worth while to make this observation for the sake of itself;we expect something to follow which may define its purpose: for example:

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Friendship is a subject that has so often employed the pen of the moralist, that the few thoughts it may suggest to my mind, cannot be either novel or striking. Yet my remarks, though trite, may deserve some attention, because the subject itself is of the highest importance."

Thus carried out into a rational consequence, and a rejoinder to that consequence, the original proposition becomes a proper introductory paragraph. The next independent proposition may now be taken, and followed up thus:

*See Section 43, page 171.

"We all feel that friendship is necessary to our happiness. Individually weak, we stand in continual need of assistance, support, advice, and sympathy. But the coldness of the world, and even the indifference of our own hearts to all except a few by whom we are surrounded, soon teach us, that, without sincere friends, we may look for these good offices in vain. Therefore, we always flatter ourselves we possess friends, though there are many who pass through life unendeared to a single heart, and who are never served or assisted but through motives of interest or of fear."

This paragraph being completed, we may take the next independent proposition as the ground for a third:

"Many persons pretend to be influenced by friendship, who are incapable of so noble a sentiment. The selfish cannot feel it :—they will connect themselves with others to reap some immediate advantage, but they are ever strangers to that regard which frames to itself a happiness out of the happiness of others : all their views are of profit or of pleasure solely to themselves. Yet none are more ready than the selfish to give the colouring of friendship to all their actions; because they know this to be the most likely means of securing the return of greater benefits than they yield."

It is to be observed that not only should the sentences of the same paragraph be logically connected, but the paragraphs themselves should have a closer relation than merely that of treating of the same subject. Therefore, though the foregoing paragraph may not be liable to any objection in itself, yet when placed beside the other, it appears to be defective by not being consequent on what preceded it. This fault may be corrected, by drawing such a consequence from the second paragraph as may serve for the ground of the third: for example:

"As friendship is so important toward the happiness of life, we cannot be too careful in our choice of friends, lest we place a reliance on those who will desert and betray us in the hour of difficulty and distress. For it is but too true that many persons pretend to be influenced," &c.

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A short practical conclusion carried on from the word yield," in unison with the commencement thus prefixed to the paragraph, will give a finish to the whole theme: thus: "Against such pretended friendship, let confiding generosity be ever on its guard."

5. Thus it appears that a theme ought to be free from verbiage,—that the parts ought to be properly arranged,— and that the thoughts should flow from, and support each other. Every fault which the learner is likely to incur, will be some special mode of violating one or the other of these three general rules.

Under VERBIAGE, the more special names may be, Petitio principii, a Latin phrase, implying the demand (for our proof) of the very thing to be proved: Non-sequitur, another Latin phrase, which means, that what is appended as a consequence, does not follow as a consequence: and Error in distinction or division, which amounts to no distinction or division at all. Again; Petitio-principii may so occur as to allow of still more special designations, namely, Begging the question; Identical proposition; Explaining a thing by itself; and Reasoning in a circle. So the fault of Non-sequitur may occur in such a manner as to be designated, Irrelevant premises, in which the inconsequence is obvious; and Proving too little, or Proving too much, in which the inconsequence is real, yet less obvious. So, again, Error in distinction or division, branches into Distinction without a difference, and Confusion of cross divisions.

Under CONFUSED REASONING, the special descriptions of fault may be, Saying other than is meant; Not distinguishing different senses of the same word; Neglecting the means of distinction and division which grammar provides for the clear development of thought.

Under DISJOINTED REASONING, the special descriptions may be, Omitting necessary propositions; Proposing too much or too little; Deviation from the proposition; Discoursing short of the proposition; Discoursing wide of the proposition. All these may have for their general title, as well Disjointed Reasoning as the Latin phrase Ignora' tio elen'-chi, which implies-forgetfulness, or omission, of the point to be made out or developed. The following synopsis will render the previous explanation at once intelligible :