Grues, Gregeis or Griffons. But our author includes among the list of romances with which he is apparently familiar the Tale of Alisaunder, and in the English Alisaunder fragments these forms again appear, as also in William of Palerne. From one or other of these poems he may have adopted terms which were doubtless in common use.

His evident knowledge of Romances which were French in origin if not in the form in which they came to his notice, goes also far to account for the occasional French words and French rhymes, which occur in the course of the poem, though not in sufficient numbers to demand any special consideration. A cursory examination seems to show that the French words are mostly technical terms or belonging to the regular vocabulary of romance common to both tongues, while the proportion of French rhymes in the 19 000 lines of which the work consists is very small.

§ 4. Relation of the Poem to the Romance of Benoit de Sainte More.

M. Joly also suggests that the author of the English poem was acquainted with the work of Benoit de Sainte More.

He says1): "On en trouverait aisément la preuve en divers endroits de son poème, mais cela est surtout frappant dans le prologue." On a somewhat close examination of the two poems they do not seem readily to afford this evidence, while the two or three points of connection to which special attention is called fail to offer very striking testimony.

With regard to the Prologue, M. Joly says: "Après le débat que nous avons signalé, passant en revue les divers héros de Gestes en possession de la popularité il annonce qu'on n'a pas encore parlé, spekes no man ne in romance redes' du plus vaillant de ces héros et du plus fameux de ces exploits. Car il y avait d'un seul côté soixante rois et ducs de prix." 2)

There is no passage in Benoit's lengthy introduction, a summary of the whole contents of his poem, which corresponds to this, unless it be the lines:

1) ib. p. 498.

2) ib. p. 498.

And these have no special reference to Hector but a general reference to the originality of the whole story.

M. Joly tells us, further, that the idea which the English poem gives of Hector exactly corresponds to Benoit's account of him. One of the points in which the English poem departs from an exact following of Guido is in its omission of the detailed character sketches which he gives of the Trojan and Grecian heroes, and these portraits Guido derives from the French Roman de Troie. There is even no formal description of Hector, though in other parts of the poem there are passages, corresponding neither to Guido nor to Benoit, which describe his prowess and military glory.

For example, where the Troilus and Cresseida story occurs, both in the Historia and in the Roman de Troie, the English poem contains a eulogy of Hector and a lament over his fate, though these are by no means in the terms of the "portrait" to which M. Joly calls attention. It would be strange if the character of the hero as depicted in the three versions shewed any great inconsistency: the main difference is in the greater enthusiasm for Hector's courage and patriotism which the English version displays.

Guido, in matter and in detail, follows Benoit so closely that it would be very difficult to ascertain in any given passage occurring in all three versions whether the English author has consulted the French or Latin or both. As regards manner it is far more evident that he has followed the more compressed narrative of Guido. A certain diffuseness of style is indeed his characteristic feature, but this does not result from his having studied Benoit's elaborate composition. Guido told Benoit's tale succinctly: the English author tells Guido's diffu sely: the difference is unmistakable.

Again M. Joly argues from the use of certain particular terms which the English author could not have found in the Latin, but which occur in Benoit.

1

"Il écrit de l'acheson", disait Benoit; "what was the forme enchesoun" dit le texte anglais' ).

These two passages do not occur in corresponding places in the French and English versions, and instances of the use of the word "enchesoun" are too numerous throughout the latter (while it is common in Chaucer) to give any particular value to the coincidence had it occurred.

In the course of comparing the two versions one other correspondence, a correspondence in rhyme was observed: Benoit has the couplet:

"Philitoas de Calcedoine

O tote sa gent sans essoine."

1. 9375.

The English has:

"The kyng come then of Cassedone
To helpe Ajax withoute essoyne."

f. 82.

The same rhyme occurs on another page of the English M.S.:

"Of doughti men withoute ensoygne
That comen were out of cesoygne."

f. 71.

The word "essoygne" is thus twice employed as a rhyme to place names somewhat hard to suit. The first alone has any correspondence with the French. In the second case Cesoygne corresponds to Guido's Cisonia, while Benoit has Pevoine which does not occur as a rhyme-tag. This second piece of evidence seems therefore to annul any value the first might have in proof of the English author's having made use of Benoit's poem.

Yet one other slight correspondence between the French and English versions was observed. Guido has a brief description of setting up camp after one of the battles: this the English author greatly enlarges, adding many vivid details and amongst the rest describing tents and pavilions adorned

"With eglis faire & riche in syght

Of riche gold and mechel of wyght."

f. 69.

Guido makes no mention of these eagles but Benoit in the corresponding place, speaks of

"Maint aigle d'or resplendissant."

1) ib. p. 498.

1. 7585.

Further in describing the advance of the army on the following morning the English author tells how:

"Thei rered many a gomfanoun

Baneres brode of fyne asure

Grene and white of purpur pure
Some were rede as vermyloun

With pelotes daunse and cheue roun

Some with sauters engrele

And some with bastoun wouerle

Of sable some of siluer fyn

And some of hem began to schyn."

f. 70.

Guido has no hint of the banners but Benoit suggests

them in his words

"Gomfanons riches et banières

Entailliez de maintes manières."

1. 7623.

It must be remembered that both these coincidences occur in passages in which the English author is deliberately enlarging upon Guido, and adding, possibly from actual experience, pictorial details. The eagles were a common adjunct to the mediæval kingly pavilion: the banner passage is one of many similar descriptive passages, but the only one which shews even a slight likeness to Benoit. This is the more noteworthy because one of Benoit's special characteristics is his fondness for description, gorgeous colouring, fine clothing, sparkling gems, abundant gold. These portions of his work are much curtailed by Guido. The stiffened framework of medieval Latin could hardly be expanded to such goodly exuberance of detail. Wherever they occur in the Historia they are reproduced in the English poem with much additional detail, but besides those drawn from Guido there are many other original descriptive passages, such for example as the one picturing the dress of Diomedes and Ulysses on their embassy to the Trojan camp. "Thei dede on robes that hem best payes

Of riche gold were alle the rayes

Of riche scarlett were bothe here champes
Poudred ful of golden lampes

With lilye leues and flour de lys
The robes were of mochel prays
Thei were perted with riche palle

The knyghtes were fair & clene with alle

Here hodes dyght with gold ribanes
Better weres non among the danes
Thei were with gold wel y fret
The floures of gold on hem set
With wilde bestes and flyande foules
Liouns lipardes ernes and owles
Of riche gold that louely schon
In hem stode many a riche ston
Saphur riche and selidone

Erbe de bothe and Cassidone

And ever among the dyamaund
Sewed wel with1) gode orfoyle suand

The frette of gold was like a belle."

The love of describing rich apparel, a fondness for glitter and ornament, the English author seems to have possessed in common with Benoit de Sainte More.

Had he then been acquainted with the French poem would he not, in all likelihood, have drawn upon so rich a source for details of things of which he is himself so fond?

The only trace of such a connection is the mention of the banners already referred to: in other respects what he owes to any one he owes to Guido, and that is usually in descriptive passages a bare and unsuggestive outline.

§ 5. The poem as illustrative of English contem porary life.

The main interest of the poem is in the illustration it affords of English contemporary life.

M. Joly has fully discussed the relation between the ancient and the mediæval Tales of Troy, and has shewn in how limited a sense the term classic can be applied to Benoit's Roman de Troie, and to how great an extent it is the literary outcome of the feudal system of society. The English poem which we are considering is quite as completely interfused with the mediæval spirit. The heroes of Troy live and move in the surroundings most familiar to their historian; he cannot conceive of them in any other. His imagination ranges over