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possible; in the lower class to be altogether avoided. The examples should be always in concrete number."*

Laurie thus complains of the teaching of arithmetic in England:

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"As matters stand, the exercises worked by the pupils have, for the most part, immediate or sole reference to the attainment of a certain familiarity with the relations of number in themselves, and with the rules under which the exercises happen to be ranged: they ought, on the contrary, to bear with the greatest stress on the relations of number to every-day affairs. School-arithmetic is not a playing with numbers, but a dealing with the things to which number is attached. If it be not a playing with numbers, much less is it an intricate game with figures."

He shows how arithmetic may be turned to account in promoting economy and foresight :

"But we have to point out a still more important purpose which the teaching of the relations of number as Economic Arithmetic subserves. Economic Arithmetic, properly taught, must rest mainly on that class of questions which concerns clothes, feeding, housing, and foresight. The constant reference of figures to the acts, facts, and dealings of every day life, thus brings Number to bear on subjects which are, in truth, moral, inasmuch as they have to do with a man's relations to his household and his occupation. It is evident that the familiarizing of the mind with the important part which number plays in ordinary affairs will promote what may be called arithmetical prudence in the management of the personal and family getting and spending. The expenditure of the operative classes has, in the vast majority of cases, not the slightest regard to present or future responsibilities. If we can get a man to consider seriously how he can best extend the benefits of his earnings to those of his own household, the economic object of education in him is fully attained. But this deliberation is the one thing desiderated. If this be secured, he will quickly see that although saving is a duty, it does not mean niggardliness. He will perceive that a regulation of expenditure with due regard to the income, and to the various present claims which a man has on himself or which others have on him is economy, and it is more; it is also benevolence, honesty, justice, and sense. Now, these things ought to be taught to the people, and they are scarcely ever taught. This subject has been already adverted to in general terms, and it will be spoken of again under the head of Direct Moral Instruction; but we wish specially to show in this place, that even a study apparently so abstract as arithmetic can be so taught as to reveal an intimate connection with the conduct of life, and that it is best so taught. And further, that arithmetic ethically taught in this its economic sense, is moral teaching, and that, while it confessedly contributes very largely to the discipline of the intellect, it also to some extent aids

* Education Commission, vol. iv., p. 235.

in the formation of a moral habit of mind. It thus promotes the ultimate object of the primary school in both its aspects."*

Practical Mathematics.

Following the custom in England, Euclid is very extensively studied in India. There is every reason to believe that the time thus employed might be turned to better account. The Report of the Schools Inquiry Commission contains the following:

"Euclid is almost the only text-book now used in England for teaching geometry. There is reason to fear that it is not well taught, that boys are pushed on too fast and too far, without thoroughly com. prehending the earlier parts of it, and that too much time is given to the mere text, without illustrations or applications; and it is quite certain that if geometry be a most valuable instrument of mental dis cipline when thoroughly understood by the learner, its value is absolutely reduced to nothing if the comprehension of it be hazy or loose. But we think that it is well worth consideration whether Euclid be the proper text-book for beginners, and whether boys should not commence with something easier or less abstract. Mr. Griffith, the Secretary to the British Association, stated that in his opinion too much time was given to Euclid, and that many boys had read six books of it who knew nothing of geometry; and Professor Key went so far as to express a wish to get rid of Euclid altogether as a most illogical book. The French and German schools have long disused it altogether. The English evidence does not, on the whole, go to this effect; but the facts seem to justify the opinion that in teaching geometry it would be well to spend much more time on the earlier parts, and perhaps to let the practical application to a great degree precede the strictly scientific study. Mr. Fearon found the Scotch High Schools much superior to the average English Schools in mathematics, and he ascribes this to the practical turn given to their mathematical teaching Practical applications, being less abstract, are much more easily within the reach of average intellects, and there may be some who can study these with great profit and yet cannot attain to the abstruser parts of the science; and even clever boys would probably be the better if their study of Euclid were preceded by that of mensuration and practical geometry." pp. 30, 31.

The course recommended might be carried out with great advantage in India. The comprehension of Euclid by students is undoubtedly often "hazy or loose." Practical geometry, &c., might be made much more intelligible, while it is often useful to be able to ascertain the extent of a field, or to calculate the quantity of earth which must be excavated in digging a well of certain dimensions.

WRITING.

This branch is greatly valued by the people. Formerly much

* Laurie's Primary Instruction, pp. 109, 112-114.

more time was devoted to it in schools of a higher grade than at present-success in the University examinations depending on other acquirements. Sir George Campbell has very properly called attention to its neglect.

It has been stated that the indigenous schools follow the excellent plan of teaching reading and writing simultaneously. Sand, boards, or leaves are the materials used. Babu Bhudev Mukerji advocates a continuance of this plan in patshalas:—

"It is scarcely necessary to add that no alterations must be made in the writing materials hitherto in use in the village schools. Even if the chalk, palm and plaintain leaves have nothing else to recommend them, their cheapness, in fact their absolute want of any estimable price in the villages, must still recommend them to the poorer classes, who will find slates and pencils too costly, both in their price and in their liability to breakage."*

Still, copy books may be used in the higher classes of vernacular schools. It is desirable to have a graduated series of writing lessons in the vernacular similar to those in use at home. Eventually copies with printed headings may be prepared. At the same time, teachers should make much use of the blackboard in writing lessons. The attention of pupils can thus be more readily drawn to their mistakes.

The recommendation of the Hon. Seton Karr to teach letter writing, simple legal notices, &c., has already been quoted (p. 84). The Calcutta School-Book Society has published a "Book of Letters," also "Legal, Commercial and Zemindary Forms." This has likewise been done in the North-West Provinces. It is very desirable that corresponding books, with the necessary modifications, should be prepared in all parts of the country. By giving a practical turn to education, it will be much more valued. Advanced scholars may write out such forms.

DRAWING.

In the present stage of India Education, this branch cannot be expected to receive much attention. Still, probably one lesson a week might be substituted for writing without any disadvantage to the latter, while it would be of some practical use, and tend to refine the taste. The Penny Drawing Books" would furnish very cheap models, though oriental design should not be overlooked.

SINGING.

"

This has already been noticed under the head of Moral Instruction.

* Bengal Public Instruction Report, 1863-64. Ap. A., p. 371.

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Pattison states that in Prussian Village Schools, out of 26 hours a week, three are allotted to music. In the Town Schools, two hours are generally allowed. In Vernacular Schools in India, the children might receive a daily lesson in singing of about twenty minutes. Care should be taken to explain the meaning of what is sung. English tunes may be taught in English Schools-not Colleges. Barnard mentions that in the Royal Gymnasium of Berlin there are five classes for music, each receiving about two hours instruction weekly. "The proficiency is indicated by the fact that the pupils perform very creditably such compositions as Haydn's Creation' and Handel's Messiah'"* The grand difficulty urged will be, who is to teach singing? Progress, it is admitted, must be slow. The first steps are to collect the best popular tunes and secure appropriate poetry. Singing should be made a subject of instruction in all the Normal Schools, and a knowledge of it would gradually spread. The German headmaster of a Government School at Merkara, enthusiastically fond of music, has been so successful in teaching his pupils, that now the Coorg Hills often re-echo the sound of German melodies, associated with English or Vernacular words.

Moseley remarks:

ILLUSTRATIONS.

"The teaching power of pictures not only for infants but for elder children, is not, I think, duly appreciated. If the reading lesson books were profusely illustrated with prints of the inhabitants of different countries, their dwellings, the characteristic forms of vegetation, &c., and generally of such objects as are usually pictured in books of travel, and if the historical parts of the book were illustrated on a similar principle, and so of every other subject (manufacturing processes for instance), the effect upon our schools would, I think, well repay any cost which it might create."+

The people are fond of pictures. Marshman says of the early productions of the Bengali press: "Many of these works have been accompanied with plates, which add an amazing value to them in the opinion of the majority of native readers and purchasers."+

Most of the Government School Books in India are entirely without illustrations. Some of the Government Vernacular School Books in the North-West Provinces have a few hideous woodcuts. The Marathi Series of the Bombay Government has some only a shade better, as those in the First Book; while

*Education in Europe, p. 150.

+ Minutes of Committee of Council on Education, 1847-48, Vol. I., p. 33. Quarterly Friend of India, No. 1., p. 125.

§ See also the picture of a Cat at page 123 of the Third Reader.

others are fairly creditable. The latter were probably supplied by the School of Arts.

Two kinds of illustrations are required-small woodcuts for books and large pictures to exhibit to classes.

Woodcuts for books should be small in size, for economy of space; but they should be as clear and accurate as possible. Perspective and backgrounds are generally not understood by the common people. In their own books the illustrations are often little more than outlines. A little shading may be added, but not much. Printing has to be taken into account. It is far more difficult to bring out woodcuts clearly than ordinary letterpress. In the vernacular editions this has to be considered. The original woodcuts should be from the best photographs, where available, and executed in the first style of art. This would involve some expense at first, but electrotypes could be supplied to all parts of India at very low rates. The cost, on the whole, would be much less than engraving blocks at each of the Presidencies, while the workmanship would be far superior.

The subjects for woodcuts will readily suggest themselves. It may only be mentioned that the physical features, the ethnology, and remarkable buildings of India should receive special attention. Some large coloured illustrations to explain lessons in science and the arts would be valuable, and compensate, to some extent, for the want of apparatus. Where the school houses are good, they may be hung up on the walls. In village schools, where they could not thus be protected from the wind and dust, they might be kept in a portfolio. Only a few would require to be specially prepared for India. A selection from those available at home would answer most purposes.

SCHOOL APPARATUS.

The remarks of Mr. Woodrow on the ability of the Hindu to obtain good results with small means, have already been noticed. With regard to schools he says:

"Even now in some schools, a round earthen pot, costing one farthing, serves for a globe; a black board is made of a mat stiffened with bamboo splints and well plastered with cow's dung. The brown surface thus produced answers all the requirements of a blackboard. If the walls of the school-house are made of mud, and washed as is usual in Hindu houses with cow's dung, the whole wall serves as a black board and can be renewed every other day. I expect to see the time when these brown surfaces will be universal in Bengali School rooms. The boys who draw maps make their own ink from charcoal, and their paint from jungle plants. They also glaze the maps by rubbing them with a smooth stone."*

* Bengal Public Instruction Report, 1859-60. Appendix A., p. 28.

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