of he; whence, where, whereon, whither, why, from the root of who and what.

179. Most of the Teutonic adverbialsuffixes have been indicated in the examples given. With regard to Teutonic prefixes, it may be noted that the most common is Old English a-, meaning on, as in abed, aboard, afoot, asleep, aside, ashore. These words, it will be noted, are derived from nouns. formation from adjectives is also frequent, as abroad, afresh, afar, anew, along.

But

Other Teutonic prefixes are: al- = all, as in almost, alone; be-by, as in besides, before; and to-, which is another form of the demonstrative the or this, as in to-day, tonight, to-morrow.

There are no classical suffixes in adverbs, and only two classical prefixes, a- and per-, as in apart and perchance. Perhaps is a mongrel word, half Latin and half Teutonic.

Comparison of Adverbs

181. Adverbs of one syllable form their comparative and superlatives, as do adjectives, by adding -er and -est, as harder, hardest; longer, longest.

With the exception of early, which makes earlier, earliest, adverbs of more than one syllable, are compared by more and most, as strongly, more strongly, most strongly. There used to be more exceptions to this rule. Shakespeare has "earthlier happy," and Milton "rightlier called." Tennyson is fond of such forms as freshlier, gladlier. Among adverbs irregularly compared are: ill (or badly) worst

well forth

worse

better further

best furthest

Other irregular adverbs are the same as their corresponding adjectives (see Section 62).

PREPOSITIONS

Meaning and Function

182. The word preposition means a placing before something else. Prepositions are placed before nouns and pronouns to show

183. Prepositions are classified as either (1) Simple, (2) Compound or Derivative, (3) Phrase Prepositions. Examples:

(1) at, by, for, from, in, of, to, with. (2) above, about, across, along, amid (st), (a)round, athwart, before, below, between, betwixt, during, notwithstanding, over, past, since, through, throughout, toward(s) under, underneath, until, within, without.

(3) according to, on account of, because of, in spite of, thanks to.

Prepositions are mostly of Teutonic origin, though some have also classical affinities. Thus at (O. E. at) is cognate to Latin ad; by (O. E. bi) to Latin am-bi; of (O. E. of) to Latin ab; over to Latin super; under to infra, &c.

Many prepositions are also used as adverbs when not followed by a noun or pronoun, as He came down He came (adverb), down the street" (preposition). Since is a conjunction, as well as an adverb and a preposition.

184. Beside and besides. Beside is used both of position-" Beside the ungathered rice he lay" (Longfellow, The Slave's Dream) -and of being out of position, as when we say that something is " beside the mark." This latter meaning is to be traced again in the phrase "beside himself," i.e. out of his mind." Besides cannot rightly be used in the senses just given. Both beside and besides can be used in the sense of in addition to, though beside is the more common. Both forms, again, are used adverbially, but as an adverb besides is of more frequent use.

Between. The use of this should be confined to two objects; but the Saturday Westminster frequently announces that it divides a prize "between three competitors." Where more than two objects are involved, among is certainly the right word to use.

185. A conjunction is an indeclinable word used to unite the clauses of a sentence or to co-ordinate words in the same clause or sentence.

In some grammars a good deal of space is needlessly occupied in discussing the question whether conjunctions join sentences and words, or sentences only, some writers (Nesfield, e.g.) saying that and joins nouns, but that no other conjunction can do so, while others (West, e.g.) admit that it occasionally joins words, but that no other conjunction does. Adams and Hall argue that and, when joining words, does the work of a preposition. If that were so, would it not throw into the objective case the word that follows it?

There seems no sufficient reason for making a distinction between the and that joins sentences and the and that joins words. Nor can Nesfield's contention that and is unique because it will join nouns as well as adjectives be admitted. Take, e.g., the two sentences 'John and Henry came,' "Not John but Henry came." But in the second sentence is as much a conjunction as and in the first.

Classification

186. Conjunctions are divided into (1) Co-ordinate, and (2) Subordinate.

(1) These join sentences of equal rank, or words standing in equal relation to each other in the same sentence. Examples:

"So Enid took his charger to the stall; And after went her way across the bridge." Tennyson, Geraint and Enid.

"With one loud cry

For bread or death."

Cornhill Magazine, "The Satrap."

(2) Subordinate conjunctions join a dependent sentence to a principal one: “I came because you sent for me.'

Sometimes the conjunction stands at the beginning: "Because I live, ye shall live also " (John xiv. 19).

Many conjunctions are found in pairs, as as—so, both—and, either—or, or—or, neithernor, whether-or, though-yet.

Sometimes, especially in poetry, neither is omitted, as in

'Worms nor stars transpierced the gloom Of the sepulchre of love."

John Davidson, Holiday,

but the omission is not to be commended. Care should be taken not to write neither

"Not by might, nor by power (Zech. iv. 6).

"

Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard" (1 Cor. ii. 9).

"Not for Bohemia, nor the pomp that may Be thereat glean'd."

Shakespeare, Winter's Tale, Act iv. sc. 4. "Here was a vulgar little woman, not clever nor pretty especially' (Thackeray, The Newcomes).

Manly & Powell, in their Manual for Writers (Chicago, 1913), lay it down (p. 58) that Inot must be followed by nor in such sentences as 'Not for wealth nor for fame did he strive,'' She was not present, nor was her husband.' In the second example they are clearly right; but in their first, and in such sentences as those quoted above, or would, as a matter of fact, be quite admissible. Thus we have "The two did not fit or mingle into harmony" (Stopford Brooke, Studies in Poetry). One sentence of Manly & Powell's (p. 25) runs thus:

"Logical processes have no relation to time; they never wear nor warp, nor become distorted; they bear no mark of past use." This sentence would sound much better if fewer words in it began with n-, and the negative never makes it quite unnecessary to have two following nors. But the superfluous negatives often have a literary value for emphasis.

A similar remark may be made about this sentence from The Newcomes: No friends went to Europe nor ship departed but Newcome sent presents to the boy." Here the opening no negatives ship as well as friends, and it would have been more formally correct to write "or ship departed."

A striking instance of redundant negatives is to be found in L. P. Jacks' Among the Idol-Makers (p. 176), where we read: Of course there never was [an argument for Determinism], nor for Free-will, neither." The pair of conjunctions should strictly have been or . . . either; but the idiom adds force.

INTERJECTIONS

189. An interjection is a word of exclamation expressing an emotion, as Oh! alas! hurrah! Interjections seldom (some authorities go so far as to say never) have any grammatical relation with the rest of the sentences in which they occur. But in Section 169, on Adverbs, it has been suggested that such a relation may exist; and it should be further noted that a preposition or the conjunction that may make an interjection part of a sentence, as Alas for liberty!" Oh that I knew where I might find him!" (Job xxiii. 3).

DIMINUTIVES AND AUGMENTATIVES

190. I. Diminutives are words to which various suffixes give the meaning little. Among those of English origin may be named bab-y, cock-e-rel, farth-ing, duck-ling, kern-el (from corn), maid-en, lass-ie, lamb-kin, hill-ock, satch-el (a small sack). Man-i-kin, Man-ik-en, is a double diminutive. Of classical origin are animal-cule, cigar-ette, lanc-et, rivu-let, mors-el, parti-cle.

Besides denoting smallness, diminutives may express either affection or contempt. In some cases an instrument is indicated, as in shov-el, spin-dle, thimb-le (from thumb).

191. II. Augmentatives are formed by suffixes which intensify the meaning of the original word. Among Teutonic augmentative suffixes, the most frequent is -art, -ard, or -rd, which comes to us through Old French, German tribes having introduced it into the south and west of Europe. It has different meanings, exemplified (a) in proper names, as Leon-ard, where its meaning is good; (2) in words implying blame, as drunk-ard, dull-ard, cow-ard; (3) in masculine words, as wiz-ard, mall-ard (the wild drake); (4) in words describing condition, as poll-ard (a tree which has been polled or cut down); (5) in words implying size or intensity, as tank-ard (a large drinkingvessel), hagg-ard (very old and witheredlooking).

Among augmentatives of Romance origin may be named galle-on (a great galley), cartoon (a large drawing on paper), ball-oon (a large ball), trombone (a large trumpet), mill-ion (a big thousand), buff-oon (a puffer out of his cheeks).

H

WITHIN the last few centuries the English language has spread over more extensive regions than has any other tongue. The question of the rivalry of languages involves many and interesting problems, but it will probably be found that, as a general rule, the influence most powerfully at work is that of political supremacy. This increase in the number of English-speaking people is not without its responsibility. The study of the growth and structure of English reveals the peculiar pliancy and richness of its characteristics. Grammatical changes have been numerous-sufficiently numerous, indeed, to illustrate the fact that departure from accepted rules of grammar does not necessarily mean corruption. Often such a departure means development and welcome innovation. Parallel with the grammatical side of the language is the side dealing with vocabulary and its constant ebb and flow. There are those who believe that in the struggle for existence in the realm of words the fittest will survive; but this indifferent attitude has its risks, especially in the general careless tone of modern life. The English language, both written and spoken, is beset by traps for the unwary, and offers countless opportunities for transgression to those regardless of the necessity, of the responsibility even, of preserving its dignity and purity.

Though there are subtle distinctions, yet written and spoken English are intimately bound up with and hence vitally affect each other, particularly in these days where the novel and the play present realism in its every light and shade. The growing tendency, then, of our indulgence in slang, in useless and inelegant colloquialisms, in vulgarisms, both clumsy and gross, and in a slackness as opposed to a virility of speech threatens a degeneracy in speech which will end by corrupting our literature to a more or less extent-more, it is to be feared,

rather than less. Even so, on the other hand, literary weaknesses will be apt to affect the spoken tongue. The virtues of language are at basis moral," Ruskin declared. Thus the need for a campaign against careless diction; for while its adaptability and capabilities of expansion are our glory, yet these very qualities call for watchfulness, lest they be carried to an extreme.

as

The freedom from pedantry is one of the happiest characteristics of English, whereby it sacrifices the "logic of facts" to the 'logic of grammar," and the sacrifice is made freely and constantly—a sacrifice that in most other languages takes place sparingly, if indeed at all. Collective nouns are used with singular verbs, and vice versa a grammatically plural group is treated as a singular whole. Thus in the one case we find the construction (so wisely termed in Latin constructio ad sensum), The family are away from home just now," or, "The laity are not supposed to take an interest in such matters,' It is said that the club have protested against such measures have the union." These are all singular collective nouns, and while being used with singular verbs, the choice of the plural verb is also given, since the individuals composing the club or family, as the case may be, are to be understood. Conversely a number of items may be bunched together as a whole, thus: "If you went away for a quiet three months you would recruit all the more rapidly." "Ten minutes is but a short time in which to answer that question.' Threepence is all you require to buy that." Another trait revealing the elasticity of English is the strange twisting and turning of words and phrases into attributes and adjectives. It is true that when this is done the language assumes a colloquial tinge, but the usage is far from infrequent, and while not without a slight risk of taking

too much license, the resulting expression is not seldom forcible and very effective. Thus Kipling in Captains Courageous: "You'll learn law enough to look after your own property when I'm out o' the light, and you'll have to be solid with the best men in the market (they are useful later); and above all, you'll have to stow away the plain common sit-down-with-your-chin-onyour-elbows book learning." Or again-as Jesperson has quoted-from Dickens and Lowell, a little man with a puffy, saynothing-to-me or I'll-contradict-you sort of countenance and "with an I-turn-thecrank-of-the-Universe air." These examples will show the eel-like qualities of the English language, its endless possibilities of turns and twists, wriggles and squirms, until its nimbleness provokes amazement. The simile of the eel, however, would not be adequate or even appropriate were the impression left that there exists a flabby backboneless element. On the contrary, no language has greater possibilities or actualities of well-braced, terse expressionmasculine has been a well-chosen epithet to qualify it. The curiously monosyllabic nature of much of its vocabulary is one of the reasons for its energetic, business-like character. Compare: "Love no man: trust no man; speak ill of no man to his face; nor well of any man behind his back" (Ben Jonson). "First come, first served." Live and learn." More haste, less speed." Stitch in time saves nine." Further, also, the sweeping away of the definite article, which so often is a regrettable feature in other languages, tends to strengthen its concise bearing: Prayers are over." "School begins to-morrow." I met her in town." Queen of England." The absence of petty little words eliminates the chances of prolixity.

Had the English been subjected, as were the French, to the influence of grammarians and purists to a rigorous extent, the language would probably have never developed such capabilities for looseness and inaccuracies, but then that gain would be considerably minimised by the parallel loss in boldness of construction, in ingenuity of expression, and in richness of vocabulary. As it is, however, the freedom of the Englishman in thought and action throughout the ages, with but few exceptions, has been ever the glory and pride of our race; and since language is the reflection of a nation's personality, it is owing to this freedom that English is so peculiarly rich in most of its branches. Thus in its vocabulary men have enriched it from almost every conceivable source. It comprises a larger number of words than does any other nation, for it

absorbs terms from the past as well as creations of the present that is busy working out the future; it shows ready hospitality to aliens, whether they hail from languages living or dead, which it presses to remain till they are naturalised and no longer are noticeable or in any way distinguished by a stranger garb. With such a wealth of material in vocabulary alone, it will be easily recognised that numerous trippings will occur in the proper use of words. Degencracy in Standard English-or perhaps it would be better expressed, degeneracy in the sustained effort to attain a high percentage in Standard English-has a psychological significance. Naturally a man's speech relentlessly reveals his inner character, his words are living symbols of his ways, at times no doubt skilfully disguising his personality, but not for ever. This is a roundabout attempt to express the fact that words reveal even while they conceal the inmost being of a man.

The acquisition of a good vocabulary is therefore of paramount importance. The expression of our thoughts through the medium of language is an unquestioned process, one of the essentials of life, like learning to walk in its initial stage; but walking may reach a limit of perfection in a comparatively short time, whereas the art of talking is really of the most wonderful and complex processes of our existence. The Germans have a good term for the genius of the language,' which goes straight to the point in its simplicity and yet depth of meaning, Sprachgefühl, "the feeling for or sense of speech." Everyone probably has felt at one time or another the relative beauty or ill-flavour of words. In a language like English, that has such a remarkable assimilating power, which means such a complexity of sources, the variation of its vocabulary reaches a maximum. Our speech of everyday embraces a host of words from history of all periods, from lands in every part of the world. In spite, however, of what might be termed its heterogeneous nature, English has a consistency in itself and a character as distinctly defined as that of the most conservative, ultraconservative might perhaps be said, language imaginable. The diverse elements have been so well digested that they have in nowise wrought havoc in the harmony of the whole. Traced from the Teutonic (or Germanic) branch of the great Aryan family, and passing through the stages of Old English, Scandinavian, French, Latin, and Greek influences, to name only the most outstanding, the process will be found to possess a singular unity, testifying to that same Sprachgefühl which in the individual