THE U NATIONAL QUARTERLY REVIEW. No. XXXV. DECEMBER, 1868. ART. I.-1. Histoire des practiques superstitieuses. LEBRUN: Paris. 2. Commentatio de doemoniacis a Chriesto, &c.: Jena. 3. Oriental Illustrations of the Sacred Scriptures, collected from the Customs of the Hindoos: London. 4. Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Voelker. CREUZER : Berlin. 5. Historie de l'École d'Alexandria : Paris. 6. Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers of the Colony of Plymouth: London. 7. De l'Irritation et de la Folie. BRONSSAIS : Paris. 8. An Essay on the Demoniaci of the New Testament. By HUGH FARMER: London. 9. Prices du système theology de Loroastre dans le Zend-Avesta: Paris. 10. History of Buddhism. By E. UPHAM: London. 11. Traductio du livre chinois des Rêcompense et de Peines: Paris. THERE is no idea more ancient than that of an evil spirit against whose machinations man should be constantly on his guard. Under one name or other all nations, from the most barbarous to the most civilized, have acknowledged the existence of such a being. Even those who could not understand, or believe that the universe is the work of an all-wise and beneficent Creator, have readily accepted the dogma of VOL. XVIII.-NO. XXXV. 1 a malignant genius who delights only in mischief. Pagans, Jews, Christians, Mahomedans, Brahmins, and Buddhists, have all agreed in this faith, if in nothing else. Many nations, ancient and modern, have changed their religion; none have surrendered the evil one. All have clung to him with a tenacity which, if it is not laudable, is at least remarkable. It is true that there have been individuals in every age who have denied the existence of any such being; nor does the present age form an exception; but we do not hesitate to say that let the investigator travel whither he may he will find three-fourths of all he meets implicit believers in devil or dæmon, no matter what other dogma they may receive or reject. As we are not theologians we will not take it upon us to determine which are right or wrong, although we may remark in passing, that if the voice of the majority must be received as the correct one, nothing could be more impious or treasonable than to deny the existence of the being who commenced his depredations on mankind in the garden of Eden. For our part we have no ambition either to condemn, or refute a dogma which has been taught by the most pious and learned Christians for nearly two thousand years. It is well to remember that if human malefactors had once a good character, infernal malefactors had the same; and this is one of the most remarkable features in the history of the evil one, who has been known in all parts of the world by so many different names. Sometimes the being who was worshiped as a God in one country was feared and detested as a devil in another*; some nations regarded dæmons as beneficent beings while others regarded them as malignant beings. It would seem that their conduct must have deteriorated gradually, for we find that for many ages the proportion of mankind which regarded them as evil spirits continued steadily to increase, whereas that which regarded them as beneficent spirits continued to diminish in a still larger ratio, *Fulgence, Mytholigia, p. 712. until finally the term dæmon became synonymous throughout the world with devil, or evil spirit. From this degeneracy many learned investigators have inferred that the dæmons as well as the gods of the Heathen were human beings deified after their death; and it cannot be denied that they can adduce cogent arguments in support of that view. Hesiod may be regarded as the most ancient profane authority on the religious faith of Pagan antiquity, and there is no subject on which he writes more plainly or more authoritatively than on this. In his famous description of the Ages of the world, he speaks of the Golden Age as follows: "After their death the men of that epoch became beneficent dæmons, living on earth as the guardians of mortals, observing the works of justice and the works of injustice. Veiled in a thick cloud, they passed through the earth dispensing benefits; such is the royal privilege conferred on them." At this time dæmon and god were synonymous terms, and they continued such for centuries after.* In the time of Plato a considerable change had taken place; the philosopher frequently mentions the dæmon as an inferior deity. He says in the Banquet that "Demons are intermediate between God and mortals; their function is to interpret and convey to the gods what comes from men, and to men what comes from the gods; the prayers and offerings of the one, and the commands of the others. These dæmons are the source of all prophecy, and of the art of the priests, in relation to sacrifices, consecrations, conjurations, &c.; for God has no immediate intercourse with men but all the intercourse and conversation between the gods and mortals are carried on by means of the dæmons, both in waking and sleeping. There are many kinds of such dæmons, or spirits." Throughout the Homeric poems the dæmon is regarded in the same light; and the poet assigns him duties in accordance with his inferiority. Nor is it alone the inferior gods Homer treats in this manner; he frequently assigns corre *"We must not," says Menander, "think any demon to be evil or hurtful to life, but every god to be good.” † Cratylus. See also Apuleius, de Deo Socrato. sponding duties to the goddesses, as, for example, when he makes Minerva wash the face of Penelope.* But however inferior the dæmons may be, he everywhere describes them as the protectors of the good and just.† Thales the Milesian divided all spiritual beings into three classes; the gods who govern the universe, the dæmons who are partly celestial and partly terrestial, and the heroes whom he describes as human souls separated from the body. ‡ And nearly the same faith was professed by Pythagoras. In the time of Eschylus and Euripides; the dæmons had greatly degenerated; thus Atossa is made to say in the Persians, "Prince, an envious dæmon has caused all the mischief." And the same poet speaks in his Seven Chiefs before Thebes, of the dæmon of hatred (v. 711.) Yet it is evident from the testimony of various authors that many still adhered to the old doctrine; we have proof of it in the curious fact that while in one tragedy Eschylus designates the Furies as black and repulsive dæmons, in another he describes them as chaste goddesses, the powerful and respectable daughters of the Night. || Before the time of Eschylus, both painters and poets represented the infernal as well as the celestial divinities as beautiful in form; few made any distinction in this respect, the reason being that both kinds of divinities were regarded as belonging to the same family. In short there is abundant evidence that the hideous forms in which the dæmons are painted at the present day, is a modern idea. Pausanias informs us (Ch. 1, p. 29,) that it was not until after the time of Eschylus that even Furies, or Pluto were represented as in any manner repulsive in their features or appearance, and his testimony is confirmed in many ancient sculptures and paintings. Thus, for example, there are seven vases in the gallery of the Louvre in Paris, each of which represents one of the infernal deities; and all would be much more likely to be taken for guardian angels, accord *Od. xviii. v. 190 et seq. † Od. xvii., v. 473. Legatio qro Christianis, Athenagor. § V. 333-5. ing to the modern idea, than for any mischievous or malignant beings. A still more striking example may be seen at the Museum of Florence, where a Fury appears on a bass-relief, representing the abduction of Helen. The features of the infernal divinity far from being hideous or repulsive, have an expression of nobleness, beauty and calm dignity, which the modern painters of saints and madonnas might well emulate. In Euripides the dæmons had degenerated still more. All cruel spirits were now ranked as dæmons, such as the Furies, the Pœnæ, the Alastors, Nimesis, &c., who were represented as the implacable enemies of mankind, and at the same time the unswerving instruments of divine vengeance against crime of all kinds. They are represented as inflicting great miseries on mortals, though not without their being deserved. An interesting example of this will be found in the tragedy of the Phoenicians in which Antigone speaks of the Alastor (dæmon) who causes incendiaries, murders and strifes.* It is clear that the changes which had thus taken place excited considerable comment in the time of Plutarch, for the philosopher refers to them in several of his works. "Certain philosophers, he says, admitting the same changes in the soul which take place in the body, believe that earth changes into water, water into air, and air into fire, nature always tending to subtilize herself; on the same principle those among human souls who are most virtuous become heroes; the heroes are changed into dæmons, and some-a small number-entirely purified by a long exercise of the virtues, are elevated to the divine nature. Upon the other hand there are those who, incapable of restraining their desires, degenerate to such an extent as to plunge themselves again into mortal bodies to eke out in a gloomy atmosphere an obscure and miserable existence."+ But Plutarch does not condemn the dæmons, or regard them as malignant beings; he tells us that there are dæmons of whom the gods make use as ministers and servants, and to whom the care of fêtes and mysteries is consecrated. There *V. 1550-1551. † Opinion. philosoph. lib. 1, c. 8. |