NEWS Febrifuge and Anti-Periodic Properties of the Leaves of deceased, a well and deservedly known chemist, formerly one of Prothe Laurus Nobilis.-G. Doray. La Revue Scientifique de la France et de l'Etranger, Researches on Dulcite and Sugars in General. - Dr. G. Bouchardat. This paper contains a brief resumé of the author's researches, published in the form of an inaugural dissertation. The first part treats on dulcite, and on the relation existing between that substance and the glucoses which yield mucic acid, and on the question whether all the glucoses can be viewed as the aldehydes of hexatomic alcohols. Next the action of different reagents (dilute acids, sodium amalgam) upon various kinds of saccharine substances is described; and in the second part of the essay the combinations of dulcite with acids is fully detailed. Dulcite as well as mannite are hexatomic alcohols, and the combinations with acids are veritable ethers. Geology and Paleontology of Provence (South Eastern France).-A. F. Marion.-Illustrated by woodcuts and a map; an excellent lecture of the geology and paleontology of this locality. Regularisation of the Heat in Warm-Blooded Animals,Dr. Rosenthal.-A physiological essay. December 28, 1872. Bibliography.-Attention is called to "Histoire de la Céramique," par Albert Jacquemart, 1 vol.: Paris, Hachette, prix 25 francs. The author begins from the remotest periods of antiquity, and refers to all nationalities and countries. Annales des Mines, No. 4, 1872. This number contains no original papers relating to chemistry, but we call attention to the two following monographs. Studies on Blast-Furnaces.-L. Gruner. Notes on the Mechanical Preparation (Washing, Screening, &c.) of Coals, and on taking of Coke Abroad and in France.-A. Pernollet.-These essays are copiously illustrated with engravings. Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie, December, 1872. In addition to several original papers strictly relating to pharmacy, this number contains the following brief paper relating to chemistry:Action of Ether upon Iodides.-Dr. J. E. de Vry.-The author states, in reference to an observation made by Ferrières concerning the decomposition of iodides by ether, that several years ago he tried a similar experiment leading to the same result; but when the ether of commerce was first thoroughly shaken up with a concentrated solution of sulphate of protoxide of iron, and next with milk of lime, and then rectified by distillation, no action of the ether upon the iodides was observed. The author further observed that, while he resided in Java, he always ordered the ether sent to him from Europe to be rectified in the manner just described, because so treated it remained perfectly pure and without any action upon iodides even in that warm climate, provided the bottles containing it were well stoppered and kept quite full. Les Mondes, December 26, 1872. This number contains no original papers relating to chemistry, but it gives an exhaustive programme of A New High School for Agronomic and Forester's Sciences and their Application, to be shortly Inaugurated at Vienna.-It appears that this institution, founded by the Austro-Hungarian Government, will be in every respect, one of the most complete of the kind in Europe. Revue Hebdomadaire de Chimie Scientifique et Industrielle, Manufacture of Stearine Candles.-M. Venèque.-The detailed accouut of this industry as carried on by the author. Description of a Newly-Contrived Muffle Furnace to be Heated by Petroleum.-M. Wiesnegg.-This paper, illustrated by woodcuts, contains an account of muffle furnaces so constructed that petroleum may be used as fuel, according to a system devised by H. Sainte-Claire Deville. Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin, No. 19' 1872. From the protocol of the meeting, the proceedings of which are published in this number, we find that Dr. Oppenheim alluded to the fact that an eminent French savant, Aug. Cahours, desired to become a member of the Society; he regarded this as a sign of growing goodwill between the two nations, and of increasing oblivion of the past. He then briefly sketched the eminent scientific discoveries of Cahours, who was unanimously elected a member in the usual manner. The president, Dr. A. W. Hofmann, then communicated to the meeting that their fellow member, Dr. Heinrich Ludwig Buff, died at Prague on the 2nd of December last, at the age of forty-five years. The fessor Liebig's assistants at Giessen, was Professor of Chemistry at the German Polytechnic School at Prague, and an industrious collaborator of many German scientific works, and one of the editors of the Jahresbericht. The following original papers are also found in this number:Atomic Weight of Uranium.-C. Rammelsberg.-The contents of this essay, elucidated by a large number of formulæ, treat on the proposal made by Mendelejeff to double the atomic weight of uranium, which is thus brought from 120 to 240. The author points out the changes this makes in the formulæ of the uranium compounds, and the analogy thus effected with the compounds of molybdenum, tungstenum, and thorium. By taking the atomic weight of uranium as 240, it becomes the heaviest of all the elements. Observations on Silicic Acid.-C. Rammelsberg.-The main gist of the first part of this paper is that the amorphous silicic acid, as frequently obtained in analysis, is only soluble after ignition, which renders it anhydrous in a boiling concentrated solution of carbonate of soda, or of potassa when the ignition was comparatively gentle; because, at a rather high temperature, although far below that of the porcelain-kilns, amorphous silica is converted, either wholly or in part, into the crystalline state (tridymite), and its sp. gr. is then 2'3. Some other amorphous bodies, berylla, titanic, zirconic, niobic, and tantalic acids, for instance, are similarly converted into crystalline bodies. In the second portion of this paper, the author observes that the quantity of water contained in silica, precipitated from alkaline silicates by acids, and dried, either over strong sulphuric acid or at 100°, varies, so as to exhibit hydrates of the formula SiO2+aq, the value of n being in this case equal to from 4 to 8. Air-dried silica, even when apparently quite dry, may contain from 13 to 36 per cent of water. Chlorine Derivatives of Aceton.-E. Mulder. This exhaustive essay, elucidated by a very large number of formulæ, treats on the mode of preparation and properties of dichloraceton, a monochloraceton, and on the combinations of the former with hydrosulphuret of potassium and cyanide of potassium. The author incidentally observes that monochloraceton becomes of a beautiful carmine colour by the addition of excess of caustic potassa solution. Diglycolamido Acid Diuramide.-E. Mulder.-This essay, containing a large number of complex formulæ, treats, after referring to Baeyer's researches on the synthesis of hydantoin, on diglycolamido acid diuramide NH,-.-CO-.-NH-.-CO–.CH, NH, a crystalline compound, combining with neither acids nor bases, fusing at 174, soluble, unaltered in strong sulphuric acid, and yielding, by the addition of water, another substance which has to be further investigated. Observations on Hydrochinon and Substances related thereto.-O. Hesse.-Notwithstanding its high intrinsic merits, this essay, elucidated by very elaborate and complex formulæ, is not suited for abstraction. Action of Potassium upon Benzol, and that of Bromethyl upon Naphthalin Potassium.-H.Abeljanz.-By heating absolutely pure and anhydrous benzol in a sealed tube with potassium to from 240° to 250°, a combination, by addition of the two bodies, is obtained; benzol potassium in a dry state, is a very explosive compound, which is also violently decomposed by water: when this decomposition takes place more slowly, under a layer of benzol, the result is the formation of diphenyl. The naphthalin potassium is violently acted upon by bromide of ethyl; among the products of this reaction is a hydrocarbon, C20H12. History of the Azo Compounds.-S. Alexejeff-The chief aim of this brief notice is to point out that several azo compounds, lately described in the Berichte and other scientific periodicals, have been long since known and fully described in the Russian language, not only in monographs but also in publications issued in Russia, printed in either the French or German languages. The author quotes the titles and other particulars at length. Nitro Compounds of the Fatty Series.-V. Meyer and A. Rilliet. The third part of a monograph on this subject; this section treats on brom-nitroethan and normal nitro-propan. Nitro Compounds of the Fatty Series.-V. Meyer and C. Chojnacki. This fourth portion of the exhaustive monograph treats on pseudo ritro-propan, and contains an elaborate tabulated form, too lengthy for reproduction, exhibiting the reactions of sodium nitromethan, sodium nitro-ethan, sodium nitro-propan (normal), sodium nitro-propan (pseudo), with mercuric chloride, ferric chloride, barium chloride, cupric sulphate, plumbic acetate, and argentic nitrate. On Aromatic Amido Acids containing Alcohol Radicals.P. Griess. This memoir is termed a preliminary notice; it is divided into the following sections, copiously illustrated by a large number of complex formula-action of iodethyl upon amido benzoate of potassa; action of nitrous acid upon ethylamido benzoic acid; action of iodallyl upon amido benzoate of potassa; action of iodmethyl upon amidoanisic acid. Isomorphism of the Anhydrous Sulphates of the Alkaline Earths. A. Arzruni.-This paper treats on cœlestine (native sulphate of strontia) in a chemico-crystallographic point of view. The author analysed six varieties of this mineral as found near Lake Erie, at Rüdersdorf (near Berlin), in Sicily, near Bristol, near Mokkatam (Egypt), and Pschow (Russia); and all these minerals are found to be free from sulphate of baryta, but contain a small quantity of sulphate of lime. The method of analysis, decomposition of the cœlestine by means of a solution of carbonate of soda in sealed tubes placed horizontally in a water-bath, and kept there for at least 12 hours, is minutely described. On Cyan-Carbonic Acid Allyl-Ether.-R. Wagner and B. Tollens. This monograph is not well suited for abstraction, an observation applying also to the following essay: On Dibenzyl-Dicarbonic Acid.-A. P. N. Franchimont. An Ether of Pyrouvic Acid.-A. Oppenheim.-The rather cumbrous and difficult method of preparing this ether is described at great length. The ether, pyrouvate of methyl, is a fluid; boils at between 134° and 137, sp. gr. at o-1154, formula CH-CO---CO2CH ̧. On Polymeric Modification of Isobutyl-aldehyde.-G. A· Barbaglia. The para-isobutyl-aldehyde herein alluded to is a solid crystalline body; fusion-point, 59' to 60°; vapour density = 105'55; formula, 3C,H,O=C12H2O3 caustic soda, caustic potash, soda-ash, and other similar substances; also for heating or boiling and refrigerating solutions in breweries, distilleries, chemical and other manufactories, and in the apparatus employed therefor."-Petition recorded August 7, 1872. 2446. A. R. Arrott, Saint Helens, Lancashire, "Improvements in the manufacture of carbonate of soda,"-Petition recorded August 16, 1872. 2687. B. B. Standen, Blackheath, Kent, "Improvements in collecting and treating human excrement, both solid and liquid, and in the treatment of other animal urine, also in the means or apparatus employed therein."-Petition recorded September 11, 1872. 2711. W. D. Ruck, Greenwich, Kent, Improvements in the manufacture of gas."-Petition recorded September 12, 1872. 2943. E. J. Payne, Packwood, Warwickshire, and W. Clarke, Dudley, Worcestershire, "Improvements in converting or partially converting iron into steel."-Petition recorded October 5, 1872. 3160. W. T. Cooper, Oxford Street, Middlesex, "Improvements in preparing or making up medicated and other effervescing mixtures." --Petition recorded October 24, 1872. 3642. C. W. Siemens, Great George Street, Westminster, "Improvements in smelting iron and steel, and in furnaces and apparatus employed in connection therewith, parts of which improvements are also applicable to regenerative gas-furnaces generally."-Petition recorded December 3, 1872. PATENTS SEALED. 1845. W. Bull, Chancery Lane, Middlesex, "Improvements in making salt from brine."-Dated June 19, 1872. 1878. J. Tourre, Avignon, France, Improvements in obtaining colourable matters derivable from madder, munjeet, and other allied roots."-Dated June 21, 1872. 1948. F. J. Cheesbrough, Liverpool, "Improvements in the process of manufacturing oil and oil-cake from seeds, and in the machinery to be used therein."-A communication from W. B. Fisher, Newark, New Jersey, U.S.A.-Dated June 27, 1872. 2717. W. S. Dixon, Grosvenor Place, Middlesex, "Improvements in the manufacture of plute iron or refined metal."-Dated September 13, 1872. 2988. J. Young, Kelly, Renfrewshire, N.B., "Improvements in treating liquors containing ammoniacal compounds in order to obtain products therefrom."-Dated October 10, 1872. 3094. E. C. Nicholson, Herne Hill, Surrey, "Improvements in the production of colours for dyeing and printing,"-Dated October 19, 1872. PATENTS. Communicated by Messrs. VAUGHAN and SON, Patent Agents, 54, Chancery Lane, London, W.C. GRANTS OF PROVISIONAL PROTECTION FOR SIX MONTHS. 3620. J. C. Ramsden, Lightcliffe, Halifax, and J. M. Tankard, Bradford, Yorkshire, "New and improved methods or processes of and apparatus for staining or dyeing fibrous filaments when in the raw or when in a partly prepared state.-Petition recorded December 2, 1872. 3687. R. S. Best, Goole, Yorkshire, "Improvements in the manufacture of phosphates of soda and potash and chloride of ammonium; also in the manufacture of chemical manures and alkalies."-Petition recorded December 5, 1872. 3692. M. Henry, Fleet Street, London, "Improvements in preserving and protecting ships' sheathing and other metal surfaces exposed to the action of sea-water."-A communication from M. L. Ehrmann, Boulevart Sainte Martin, Paris. 3695. T. Green, Ouseburn, Newcastle-on-Tyne, " Improvements in the treatment of bones and other articles, and in apparatus for the same."-Petitions recorded December 6, 1872. 3736. W. R. Lake, Southampton Buildings, London, "An improved insulating compound for telegraphic purposes."-A communication from Z. G. Simmons, Kenosha, Wisconsin, U.S.A.-Petition recorded December 9, 1872. 3755- H. Y. D. Scott, C.B., Ealing, Middlesex, "Improvements in the treatment and utilisation of sewage water." 3763 R. S. Casson, Brierley Hill, Staffordshire, "Improvements in puddling furnaces, heating furnaces, and other reverberatory furnaces used in the munufacture of iron and steel."-A communication from P. A. Dormoy, Troyes, France.-Petitions recorded December II, 1872. 3775. J. Hunt, Ewell, Surrey, "Improvements in the manufacture of gunpowder and in the apparatus employed therein."-Petition recorded December 12, 1872. NOTICES TO PROCEED. 2337. T. Richardson, J. W. Richardson, and A. Spencer, West Hartlepool, Durham, "Improvements in the manufacture of iron and steel, and of revolving pudding furnaces or convertors, and apparatus to be employed therein."-Petition recorded August 6, 1872. 2351. G. M. Moore, Liverpool, "Improvements in the process of evaporating or concentrating alkaline liquors in the manufacture of NOTES AND QUERIES. Sulphur Dioxide.-On page 126 of Roscoe's "Chemistry," the molecular weight of sulphur dioxide is given as 65. How is this got? -E. T. Analysis of Sugars.-Would your readers kindly inform me the best book published that treats on the complete analysis of sugars?— SUBSCRIBER. Mycoderma Vini and M. Aceti.-I shall be glad of a reference to where I shall find the fullest descriptions of Mycoderma Vini and Mycoderma Aceti, and of other organisms found in wines.-A. Z. Acid in Crude Sugar.-Can any of your readers inform me what is the best way to determine the amount of acid in crude sugar when the percentage is very small? I have it to do frequently, and manage in this way, which is not always satisfactory:-A few grammes of sugar are weighed out, dissolved in water, tested with litmus paper, and the solution found to be distinctly acid. Normal soda is then added from a pipette divided into hundredths of a centimetre, and the solution tested by dipping in slips of litmus paper after the addition of one or two drops. This is somewhat clumsy, and probably not very accurate. Again, how is the acid to be reckoned, or rather as what? In making my reports I calculate it as acetic acid.-J. M. MERRICK, Laboratory, 59, Broad Street, Boston, Mass., U.S.A. Analysis of Hyposulphites, Sulphides, and Sulphites in the same Solution.-(Reply to "Alkali.")-Estimate the sulphides by means of an ammoniacal solution of zinc, using a drop of lead solution on filtering paper as an indicator. Add to another sample of the original solution some acetate of zinc (or chloride or sulphate of zinc, with a few drops of acetic acid), dilute to 300 c.c., pour through a dry filter, and save two portions of 100 c.c. of the clear filtrate. In one of these estimate the hyposulphites and sulphites together by iodine solution, in the other destroy all hyposulphite by boiling with dilute sulphuric acid, collect and weigh the sulphur,- either as such or after oxidation as barium sulphate, and calculate the hyposulphites from it: the sulphites are found by subtraction from the last testing (with iodine). 1 est, as a check, the original solution direct by iodine solution (without removing the sulphides by zinc solution; the result might so agree with the sum of the single determinations made as above. Another method is this:-Estimate the sulphides by zinc, and the sum of the sulphites and hyposulphites as above; also the sulphates in the usual manner. Then oxidise all sulphur compounds to sulphates by heating the solution with potassium chlorate and hydrochloric acid, and estimate the sulphate now present. calculation will show the amount of sulphur present in excess over what it would be if the iodine determination had only shown sulphites, and this excess corresponds to the hyposulphites. In both methods the polysulphides are estimated along with the monosulphides.GEORGE LUNGE, An easy Specially Devoted to the Study of CHEMISTRY, TECHNOLOGY, Laboratories open throughout the Year. MARTIN MURPHY, F.C.S., &c., Principal (Successor to the late A Special Laboratory is devoted to Commercial Analyses of every description, and to Mineral Assays. Manufacturers' and Smelters' Analyses and Assays undertaken on Patentees and Inventors Advised and Assisted. Works and Mines Inspected. The Erection of Manufacturers' Plant Supervised, &c. FRIDAY, 17.-Royal Institution, 3. Wm. Spottiswoode, LL.D., "On BERNERS COLLEGE of CHEMISTRY.— the Old and New Laboratories at the Royal Insti- SATURDAY, 18.-Royal Institution, 3. Edward A. Freeman, D.C.L., Now Ready, No. I., price 4d., THE MEDICAL RECORD: A Review of the Progress of Medicine, Surgery, Obstetrics, and the Chlorosis and Vascular Abnormalities (Dr. Berkart). The Mechanism of Respiration (Dr. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S.). ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. On a Hæmatozoon inhabiting Human Blood (Dr. Cobbold, F.R.S.). Recent Papers. PATHOLOGY. EXPERIMENTAL MILITARY and NAVAL SCIENCES, under the direction of Professor E. V. GARDNER, F.E.S., &c., of the late Royal Polytechnic Institution and the Royal Naval College. The Laboratory and Class Rooms are open from 11 to 5 a.m., and Especial facilities for persons preparing for Government and other Private Pupils will find every convenience. Analyses, Assays, and Practical Investigations connected with For prospectus, &c., apply to Prof. E. V. G., 44, Berners-street, W. Street.-Laboratory (entirely re-fitted) and Class-Rooms are ASSAYS, ANALYSES and Investigations connected with Pupils received for Class and Private Study. Special facilities are offered to persons preparing for GOVERNMENT EXAMINA- Classes are now forming for Practical Study in CHEMISTRY, For particulars, apply to Professor E. V. GARDNER, F.A.S., M.S.A., Worth London School of Chemistry, Phar- macy, &c.-Conducted by Mr. J. C. BRAITHWAITE, for thirteen years Principal Instructor in the Laboratories of the Pharma- ceutical Society of Great Britain, and Demonstrator of Practical Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Latin, &c. The Session 1872-1873 will commence on the 1st of October, The LABORATORY will be open at 10 a.m. for Instruction in Practical Chemistry as applied to Pharmacy, Medicine, Analysis, &c. The CLASSES will meet as usual. The CHEMICAL and TOXICOLOGICAL CLASS on Monday and Thursday evenings at 8 p.m., commencing October 1st. The LATIN CLASS on Tuesdays and Fridays at 8 p.m., com- The MATERIA MEDICA and BOTANICAL CLASS, every Wednesday and Saturday at 8 p.m., commencing October 3rd. The BOTANICAL GARDEN affords to Students desirous of acquiring a Practical Knowledge of Botany every facility for doing so. During the Season BOTANICAL EXCURSIONS are made every Fee to either of the above Classes Half-a-Guinea per Month. Pupils can enter at any period to either Classes or Laboratory. All Fees must be paid in advance. PRIVATE TUITION for the usual Examinations of the Society, Letters of inquiry should be accompanied with a stamped envelope. Address-54, KENTISH TOWN ROAD, N.W. Silicates of Soda and Potash in the state of Soluble glass, or in CONCENTRATED SOLUTION of first quality, suited for the manufacture of Soap and other purposes, The Emperor Napoleon III.-Sir W. Jenner.-Society of Biology. Soapery, Warrington. Annual Subscription, 178. 4d.; free by post, 1gs. 6d. NEWS , 1873 THE CHEMICAL VOL. XXVII. No. 686. ON THE NEWS. spectroscope; and in the eye-piece is seen the chromo Sphere in circles corresponding to the "C" or other lines. A lens is used to reduce the size of the sun's image, and keep it of the same size as the diaphragm at different times of the year; other lenses are used in order to reduce the size of the annulus of light to about inch, so that the pencils of light from either side of the annulus may not be too divergent to pass through the FORMATION OF SODIUM SULPHIDE BY THE prisms at the same time, and that the whole annulus ACTION OF SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN UPON SODIUM CHLORIDE AT HIGH TEMPERATURES. By C. T. KINGZETT.; THAT sodium sulphide was so formed the author first found by the passage of coal-gas over sodium chloride at a red heat. Concluding that its formation depended upon the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen in the gas used, experiments were made in which pure sodium chloride was exposed to the action of washed and dry sulphuretted hydrogen, at various temperatures, for periods varying from ten minutes to three hours. Sodium sulphide was always formed in amount varying and equal to from 093 to 15 per cent of the sodium chloride used. The temperature most conducive to the formation of sodium sulphide was found to be one sufficient to thoroughly fuse the salt used; and the rate of the current of sulphuretted hydrogen must be rapid enough to carry off at once the hydrochloric acid set free. The sulphuretted hydrogen used was sometimes obtained by the passage of pure hydrogen over fused sulphur, but generally by the ordinary methods. Other experiments showed that neither hydrogen nor sulphur produced sodium sulphide when transmitted over sodium chloride at a red heat. So that when it is formed by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen it must be the result of a direct reaction. 2NaCl+H2S=Na2S+ 2HCI. More experiments are in progress, to decide whether this is the only and ultimate reaction that takes place; but from examinations of the gaseous products, the author inclines to the belief that it is not. ON A NEW METHOD OF VIEWING THE CHROMOSPHERE.* By J. N. LOCKYER, F.R.S., and G. M. SEABROKE. THE observations made by slitless spectroscopes during the eclipse of Dec. 11, 1871, led one of us early this year to the conclusion that the most convenient and laboursaving contrivance for the daily observation of the chromosphere would be to photograph daily the image of a ring-slit, which should be coincident with an image of the chromosphere itself. The same idea has since occurred to another of us; we therefore beg leave to send in a joint communication to the Royal Society on the subject, showing the manner in which this kind of observation can be carried out, remarking that although the method still requires some instrumental details, which will make its working more perfect, images of the chromosphere, almost in its entirety, have already been seen on several days during the present month and the latter part of last month. The image of the sun is focussed on a diaphragm, having a circular disk of brass (in the centre) of the same size as the sun's image, so that the sun's light is obstructed, and the chromospheric light is allowed to pass. The chromosphere is afterwards brought to a focus again at the position usually occupied by the slit of the A paper read before the Royal Society. may be seen at once. There are mechanical difficulties in producing a perfect annulus of the required size, so one -inch diameter is used, and can be reduced virtually to any size at pleasure. The proposed photographic arrangements follows: are as A large Steinheil spectroscope is used, its usual slit being replaced by the ring one. A solar beam is thrown along the axis of the collimator by a heliostat, and the sun's image is focussed on the ringslit by a 3-inch object-glass, the solar image being made to fit the slit by a suitable lens. By this method the image of the chromosphere received on the photographic plate can be obtained of a convenient size, as a telescope of any dimensions may be used for focussing the parallel beam which passes through the prisms on to the plate. The size of the image of the chromosphere obtained by the method adopted will be seen from the accompanying photograph, taken when the ring-slit was illuminated with the vapours of copper and cadmium. ON THE SUPPLY OF PIG-IRON FOR THE BESSEMER PROCESS.* By W. BAKER, Associate of Royal School of Mines. THE Bessemer process has exercised so important an influence upon the iron and steel manufactures of England, and is such a bold innovation upon the ordinary metallurgical processes, that I may fairly assume a short paper upon its present condition will not be inappropriate for the discussion of the Rotherham Literary and Scientific Society. The opportunity of bringing out our thoughts upon some special subjects with which each of us may be familiar is a peculiar advantage of such meetings as the present. Without pretending to be teachers, or to speak with an authority not to be questioned, we may at least give a direction to other minds, which may result in not only the confirmation and strengthening of our own ideas, but also in some determinate action. certain The Bessemer process, as you know, consists in forcing jets of atmospheric air through molten pig-iron, whereby combustible elements which are found in pig-iron are burned. The fuel thus made use of in the iron itself developes an intense heat, and all who have witnessed a Bessemer 66 blow" will agree that it is one of the grandest sights of our manufacturing neighbourhood. According to Hunt's Mineral Statistics in 1869, there were 57 Bessemer converters, with an aggregate capacity of 248 tons. The last return for 1871 give 89 converters, with a potentiality of 446 tons. Taking 5 charges a day, or 30 charges a week, this gives us 669,000 tons per annum, against 372,000 this enormous increase has had its effect upon the supply tons in the year 1869. It will be readily conceived that of the raw material. Let me then place together the figures denoting the production of pig-iron for the same years. In 1869, pig-iron, 4,970,206 tons; 1871, ditto, 6,627,179 tons: an increase of 33 per cent. Now, the and how much can be used for the Bessemer process? question arises, how much of this pig-iron is used actually, The quotation in the market price lists of Bessemer pig disclose the fact that there is a special quality of iron * A Paper read before the Rotherham Literary and Scientific Society. suitable for this manufacture. In order to appreciate accurately this fact, I will dwell for a few moments upon the chemical reactions which take place in the conversion of pig-iron into Bessemer steel. Ordinary pig-iron may contain carbon, silicon, manganese, sulphur, and phosphorus; traces of other elements are sometimes found. For the Bessemer process, as well as for crucible caststeel, the absence of sulphur and phosphorus is essential, or at most they may be present in extremely small quantities. Now, in the Bessemer converter, silicon appears to have the greatest affinity for the oxygen of the air. That is to say, silicon burns first and produces the heat due to its chemical combination with oxygen. The product of combustion is in its pure state a white solid, infusible, except under the oxyhydrogen blowpipe. In the converter it combines with some oxide of iron, and forms the slag or cinder, but often balls of white pumicelike silica, covered with a thin case of iron silicate, may be picked out of the cinder. These seem to have been formed by the rolling or splashing of the iron over the silica as it aggregated upon the surface of the molten metal. During the combustion of the silicon a more intimate combination takes place between the iron and the carbon. That is to say, the grey pig-iron, in which flakes of graphite exist, crystallised out in the mass of the soft iron, becomes changed into what is known as white iron. The latter is a variety of pig-iron, in which the carbon is chemically combined with the iron. Spiegeleisen is a typical example of this kind of iron. And now the combustion of the carbon begins, the product of combustion being in this case a gas, and the blue flame of carbonic oxide becomes whiter, and the roar of the furnace increases to its maximum. If we suppose the blast to be continued beyond the combustion of the carbon, what would take place? The iron would burn; and often a brown smoke, which issues from the mouth of the converter at the end of the process, announces that this is actually the case. The metal also would become unmanageable by frothing. It is usual, therefore, to stop the blast when the flame drops, and to add a known quantity of spiegeleisen. This iron contains generally about five per cent. of carbon and nine to thirteen per cent of manganese. With this addition the charge is tranquillised, metallic manganese imparts fluidity to the metal, and seems to protect the carbon from being burned. This I conclude from the fact that the Bessemer ingots themselves only contain traces of manganese, whilst the carbon ranges about o'5 per cent. NEWS that my own labours in this direction have been acknowledged by Dr. Percy in his third volume, which treats of lead. The successful solution of the problem in this case was afforded by the property of copper alloying with zinc, which alloy forms a less fusible mass, that can be removed from the surface of the metal in which it floats. If we treat iron in a similar manner, we get a slag or cinder composed of oxide of iron and silica. The process I am | considering is the puddling process, which in the first stage may be looked upon as an analogous refining process. The silicon oxidises first, then the carbon, and if we would keep the decarburised iron fluid, it is quite possible that at the expense of some of it the comparatively small amount of sulphur and phosphorus which makes the grand distinction between good and bad pigiron might yet be eliminated. We are, however, stopped in the process of refining, i.e., the removal of impurities by oxidation-by the infusibility of iron deprived of carbon, and the charge is balled up and taken to the hammer for the production of wrought-iron. What I wish to point out here is that phosphorus in iron is analogous to the copper in lead; both resist oxidation to the last. The Bessemer process affords no help, the higher temperature at least might give the opportunity for the experiment. I mean that it would be worth while to see whether by continuing the blast at the expense of the iron as fuel a proportion of phosphorus to the extent of, say one-tenth per cent in the original pig-iron might not be eliminated. If this fail, we can at once and for ever give up the oxidation process for the removal of phosphorus. In puddling, it is true, a certain amount is removed, and the able paper on the Danks furnace, by my friend Mr. Snelus, of the Royal School of Mines, points to the probability, if not to the fact, that phosphorus in iron is oxidised by pure oxide of iron at the temperature of the puddling furnace. This certainly suggests the injection of metallic oxides with the blast, although the fatal infusibility of the decarburised iron is not favourable to the experiment. Mr. Isaac Lowthian Bell, whose labours as a scientific manufacturer cannot be too highly commended, has made some significant remarks on this subject. He says, "The limit to the production of Bessemer pig is the want of ores free from phosphorus." This may be correct, and so firm may be the grip that phosphorus holds on iron, that breaking up the bonds that bind them together may defy the skill of our scientific men; but it may be well to remember that the yearly make of iron from Cleveland stone alone contains about 30,000 tons of phosphorus, worth for agriA word about sulphur and phosphorus. It seems cultural purposes, were it in manure as phosphoric acid, that both these elements refuse to give up their above a quarter of a million, and that the money value combination with iron at the solicitation of torrents difference between Cleveland and hematite iron is not of oxygen, as it exists in the air at the high short of four millions sterling, chiefly due to the presence temperature of the Bessemer converter, although both of this £250,000 worth of phosphorus. The Pattinson sulphide and phosphide of iron may be roasted at a process does not leave one part of silver in 100,000 of low red heat, and these elements be nearly entirely re- lead, the Bessemer converter robs iron of almost every moved from the oxide of iron which is left. The problem contamination except phosphorus, but nine-tenths of this of eliminating phosphorus from metallic iron, leaving the ingredient is expelled by the puddling furnace. It may iron in the metallic state, is one of the most pressing pro- be difficult, but let it not be supposed there would be any blems for solution by the metallurgical chemist. Most of surprise excited in the minds of chemists if a simple and the metals which are used in the arts are obtained first inexpensive process for separating iron and phosphorus accompanied by certain impurities, and a general mode of were made known to-morrow, so that only one of the refining them is to re-melt them with an oxidising flame, latter were found in 5,000 of the former. Analyses of the with or without the addition of fluxes. Copper is thus best Bessemer pigs give the following amounts of phostreated, so is lead, and it is instructve to compare the re- phorus, viz. :—0'014, 0'01, and o'016 per cent. I select sults with those obtained with iron. Copper, when melted from analysis of Bessemer steel the following:-English under the circumstances mentioned, affords a slag, rich make: 0025, 0'033, 9'032, 0'026; mean, o'029 per cent. of in fusible red oxide of copper, which is itself a flux, and phosphorus. German make : 0132, 0'134, 0'093, 0'041; melts readily with the oxides of other metals which may mean, o'10 per cent. of phosphorus. It will be noticed exist as impurities-only gold and silver of the ordinary from the foregoing quotation that Cleveland pig-iron is metals will remain unoxidised. Now let us consider the contrasted with hematite iron. The distinction is this. refining of lead by a similar process. The same removal Hematite iron produced from an ore of iron called of impurities takes place, but besides gold and silver we hematite is sufficiently free from phosphorus to produce have a certain proportion of copper which refuses to be an iron suitable for the Bessemer process. Cleveland oxidised, but rather concentrates in the metal if the pro-iron may contain from 0.5 to 1.5 per cent of this element. cess is continued. Plainly other chemical reactions must The important question which justifies the title of my be sought for its removal, and I am pleased to observe i paper is this-What iron ore and how much iron is |