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NEWS

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Isobutyramide forms a white crystalline mass of pleasant aromatic odour; it fuses between 100° and 102°, and when heated somewhat above this temperature, but far short of its boiling-point, sublimes in beautiful iridescent laminæ. It boils between 216° and 220°, and distils without the slightest decomposition. It dissolves readily in water and alcohol, and slightly in ether. Isobutyramide is the principal product of the action of isobutyric acid on potassium sulphocyanate.

HCNS+C,H,O.OH=C,H,O !N+COS.

H2

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examine further.

It is

serve as condenser. The apparatus thus arranged is placed vertically, and heated either in a paraffin-bath or over the naked flame. Both bodies melt, forming two layers, of which the benzoic acid is the lower. At 190° the reaction commences, carbonic anhydride and sulphuretted hydrogen being evolved. At a higher temperature the mixture enters into ebullition, and in about half an hour swells to a solid mass. The retort is now reversed, and the contents strongly heated; they melt, boil, and yield a semi-solid distillate. The distillation is carried on as far as possible without charring the residue, which consists of potassium benzoate, from which half the benzoic acid employed may be covered. By addition of ammonia to the semi-solid distillate the acid is retained, whilst the nitrile distils with the water, from which it is afterwards separated, dried, and re-distilled. A roughly carried out experiment yielded 80 per cent of the theoretical quantity of nitrile in a perfectly pure condition; the loss owing to secondary reactions is amply compensated by the ease and rapidity of the operation.

Action of Cuminic Acid on Potassium Sulphocyanate. An experiment with cuminic acid yielded very satisfactory results: cumonitrile was obtained in about the same proportions as the benzonitrile. The temperature at which reaction commenced was here about 211; the nitrile was purified as in the preceding case.

Finally, an experiment was made with cinnamic acid; but although sulphuretted hydrogen was evolved, and the reaction appeared to proceed quite as in the foregoing cases, no tubuli was obtained in the liquid distillate. The cinnamic acid seemed to be decomposed into carbonic anhydride and cinnamol before becoming acted upon by the sulphocyanic acid.

The ease with which so many nitriles and amides are obtained, both in the aromatic and fatty series, induces me to hope that the new method may be of use in many cases, and perhaps by its application to other series give rise to bodies hitherto uninvestigated.

The tediousness of preparing the acid chloride, and

subsequent treatment with ammonia (for the amide) or phosphoric anhydride (for the nitrile) in the ordinary method for producing these nitrogen compounds, is here replaced by simple digestion of the acid with sulphocyanate of potassium, bodies generally readily procurable.

MINERALOGY.

Valeramide closely resembles the isobutyramide. a white crystalline body of pleasant aromatic odour, recalling that of the valerian root: it is soluble in water, THE sixth and concluding lecture of the course to working alcohol, and ether; in the last-mentioned liquid much |

men, by Mr. W. W. Smyth, F.R.S., delivered on Monday so than the isobutyramide. From hot water it evening, December 16, was on "The Ores of Iron and crystallises in large right-angled but very thin plates. their Various Modes of Occurrence." Valeramide fuses between 125° and 128°, and sublimes in

The lecturer commenced by drawing attention to the

the same manner as isobutyramide below its boiling-point, vast importance of the iron trade to the well-being of this

which lies between 230° and 232°. decomposition.

It distils without

Action of Benzoic Acid on Potassium Sulphocyanate.

The

aromatic acids, Cn H(2n-8)O, series react in an

country, the yield of ore during last year being no less than 17,000,000 tons. The percentage composition of some of the principal iron ores was given as under :Magnetic iron ore-Fe 72'4, O 276; specular iron ore, or red peroxide of iron-Fe 70, 0 30; brown iron ore, or

ore, or carbonate of iron-FeO 62, CO2 38.

the difference, however, that here nearly exclusively the analogous manner with potassium sulphocyanate, with hydrated oxide of iron-Fe 60 O 26, H2O 14; sparry iron nitrile is formed. The production of amide is so insignifi

cant

as to be scarcely recognisable. The reaction with

Magnetic iron ore, or "magnetite," received its name in early times from its magnetic properties. These the

benzoic acid takes place with particular facility according lecturer illustrated by means of a magnetic needle, a mass

to the equation

HCNS+C,H,O.OH=C,H,N+CO2+H2S.

2 mols, benzoic acid and I mol. potassium sulphocyanate (both in a perfectly dry condition) are placed in a retort, to the mouth of which a long wide tube is attached to

of the ore influencing the needle at a great distance. The magnetism of the ore was shown to be polar, the same other, and vice versa with the other side. It crystallises side which repelled one end of the needle attracting the in the cubical system, the octahedron and rhombic dodecahedron being common forms. It occurs in Sweden, Norway, the Ural Mountains, &c., and on a very much

It is remarkable that acetamide, butyramide, and isobutyramide smaller scale in England. In the south-east corner of

all have the same boiling-point, namely, 216° to 220.

Dartmoor, a band of this kind of ore deranges a compass as it is carried past its vicinity, and sailors say that there is a place in Cardigan Bay, where on passing a reef of rocks the needle is influenced, and set oscillating. A large mass of this deposit in the south-east extremity of the Island of Elba has a similar effect; in Sweden, too, deposits are discovered by means of this property. Meteorites frequently contain a percentage of iron greater than magnetite, associated with nickel and chrysolite in some cases, but the rarity of their occurrence precludes them from being classed as iron ores, by which term we understand a mineral containing iron in sufficient quantity as to be economically and advantageously extracted. Specular iron ore occurs in this country on a far larger scale than the preceding variety, the greater proportion of which (either as ore or metal) we have to import from Sweden. The crystalline form of this ore belongs to the hexagonal system, the crystals being, as a rule, tabular. It occurs usually of a bluish black colour, sometimes a brownish red, at others with an iridescent film; while large crystals (as some of these from Brazil) occur occasionally with a lustre so great as to have obtained for it the name of specular or looking-glass ore. But the bulk of the ore, as found in this country has a rounded or mammilated form, and hence is known as " kidney ore," while from its deep rich red colour in some varieties, it is known as hæmatite, or blood-stone. These ores may be readily distinguished from the magnetic by their giving in all cases a red powder when scratched or powdered, whereas the magnetic always give a black powder. They occur especially in the northern districts of England, the districts of Furness and West Cumberland being notably rich. The produce of the mines in those districts for last year was-Furness, 931,000 tons; Cleator, 976,874 tons; Hodbarrow, 207,146 tons; making a total of 2,115,000 tons, the value of which as ore being, in round numbers, £2,500,000. It likewise occurs in the Island of Elba (notably round Rio, where many of the rocks quite spangle in the sun with scales of this ore), Bilbao in Spain, Saxony, and North America.

The brown ore, or hydrated oxide, is distinguished from the other varieties by giving a brown powder, and this whatever its external appearance. The quantity of water varies considerably; it is usually from 10 to 15 per cent. It is driven off by a process of calcination-in other words the ore is roasted. It occurs chiefly in our western mining districts, South Wales, and the Forest of Dean. In some cases it occurs in irregular cavities in the strata, with the appearance of having been deposited in them much in the manner of stalactites. The stratified deposits of this ore, occurring in strata belonging to the secondary formation in the midland counties, have only lately had much attention devoted to them, but they will probably come more and more into play as the deposits of superior ore fall away. The town of Middlesborough, and those in its neighbourhood, owe their rapid rise and development entirely to valuable deposits of these oresCleveland ores-discovered a few years ago in the neighbourhood.

Spathose, or sparry iron ore, known as "white iron" ore by the miners on accout of its light colour, is generally found mixed with carbonates of lime, magnesia, &c. Some rhombohedral crystals are found of a pale yellow colour, though the general colour of it varies considerably. It occurs in marked abundance in England, and also in Germany, Austria (at Styria it has been worked for many hundred years), and other places. In England its principal mode of occurrence is in the form of nodules, mixed with much clay, whence the term " ironstone." It is found in beds or layers, interstratified clay nodules contain in some cases as much as 30 per cent of the metal; when split they frequently present patterns of crystallised substances, which have been introduced into the mass by infiltration, and deposited in the cracks which have been formed in the mass by shrinkage. "Black

with the various strata of the coal measures. The

band" iron ore is a variety of argillaceous ore which has of late years been employed in Scotland; it owes its colour to associated carbonaceous matters, which prove of great use in calcination by diminishing the supply of extra fuel required.

There is one more mineral which is important as yielding iron, but which has only lately been utilised for the purpose, being formerly thrown away as worthless. This is iron pyrites, a compound of iron and sulphur. When, in 1840, the King of Sicily partially prohibited the export of sulphur from that island, the attention of chemists was directed towards this mineral, with the hope of extracting that material from it. Even after means were found for doing this, the remainder still remained unemployed till at length means were discovered which enabled us to obtain not merely the iron, but also to extract a small proportion of copper, and also a minute quantity of silver which occurs in the mineral. Large quantities are obtained from Ireland and from Spain and Portugal.

UNUSUAL AMOUNT OF AMMONIA IN A SO-CALLED SPA WATER.

By CHARLES A. CAMERON, M.D., Professor of Hygiene, Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland; Analyst to the City and County of Dublin, &c.

A SPRING situated at Portobello, a suburb of Dublin, has been for many years in some repute as a sulphur spa, and wonderful cures have been attributed to the use of its waters. I have recently analysed it on behalf of the local authorities, and its composition is so peculiar that I think it worth while to publish it. An imperial gallon contains-Solid matters (chiefly calcic carbonate), 24°236 grains; chlorine, I'II grains; organic nitrogen, o'0035 grain; organic carbon, 126 grains; ammonia, 0'562 grain; hydric sulphide (all, except a trace, combined with ammonia), 0'406 grain; nitrites and nitrates, faint traces. Five gallons, evaporated nearly to dryness, gave a remarkable jelly-like residue. The water is clear, of a very light yellowish green colour, and has an odour of sulphuretted hydrogen, which passes away after an hour or two. Only minute quantities of iron and silica are present, and there are no sulphides, except the ammonic sulphide.

There is nothing in the water to account for its reputed medicinal qualities; but the enormous amount of ammonia which it contains, when compared with the minute quantity of albumenoid nitrogen, is very remarkable.

ON SOIL ANALYSES AND THEIR UTILITY.* By EUG. W. HILGARD, State Geologist of Mississippi.

Prof. S. W. Johnson published a criticism on the "SoilIN the American Journal of Science for September, 1861, Analyses of the Geological Surveys of Kentucky and Arkansas," whose strictures, to a great extent eminently just, appear to have so impressed the scientific public in been made in connection with any state or national survey, this country, that few if any soil-analyses have since then excepting that of the State of Mississippi, where the work already begun was continued, either by myself, or under my charge, or recommendation, by others. Holding my

adopted views, I propose in the present paper to discuss self responsible for this departure from the generally specially Prof. Johnson's objections, and to give my reasons for persisting in a course of research that has, more than once, secured for myself and my co-labourers

* Read at the Dubuque Meeting of the Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci, August, 1872.

NEWS

the compassionate sympathy of true believers. While I consider the work far from being as complete as it should be, and for that as well as other reasons its publication in detail may be delayed for some time, yet I think what can now be said of sufficient importance to be brought before this meeting.

I propose, in this discussion, to maintain the mainly practical standpoint assumed by Prof. Johnson himself. I shall therefore leave out of consideration the performance of such exhaustive investigations of all the physical and chemical properties of the soil, as have been made in some cases, for special purposes, e.g., by Prof. Mallet, on some of the cotton soils of Alabama. If the investigation of each soil, to possess practical importance, requires from three to six months labour, we may as well, for practical purposes, consider such researches out of the question for the present. We want something analogous to the metallurgical assay of minerals, as distinguished from their complete ultimate analysis. So far, therefore, as the agricultural qualities of a soil may be inferred and approximately estimated by an experienced eye, I would relieve the chemist from the exact numerical determination, . g., of the power of absorbing heat from the sun, the specific heat, the "water-holding" power, the capillary coefficients, &c. However necessary for theoretical investigations, I hold that, for practical purposes, these laborious determinations may in most cases be dispensed with; since from what has already been done, or what can be done with a few typical soils, we may infer the comparative magnitude of these coefficients with a sufficient degree of approximation.

The amount of labour bestowed on each soil by Dr. Peter, as reported in the Kentucky and Arkansas surveys, approaches very closely the limit beyond which the immediate advantages to be derived from such knowledge of soils as analysis may impart, would seem, to many, disproportioned to the expenditure involved. How very modest we are, truly, when a purely scientific object is involved, whose immediate practical apptication is not obvious at a glance! In what other branch of technical science would it be thought admissible to proceed without obtaining such knowledge of the prime materials as chemistry may afford, even if no immediate application of this knowledge be foreseen? Our public treasuries are constantly drawn upon for hundreds of thousands of dollars, in behalf of objects of at least questionable usefulness. Yet Prof. Johnson seems to have thoroughly satisfied our state geologists that they are not justfied in giving the virgin soils of their respective States the benefit of such light as chemistry may even now confessedly afford; apart from the important general inferences which may fairly be expected to be drawn hereafter from the history of their cultivation. How are we to advance in our knowledge of soils if we abandon as hopeless the determination of their chemical character? Are the proofs that have been brought against the utility of soil analyses really of such a character as to justify so grave an omission? an omission, too, which in many cases cannot hereafter be supplied. Even in the comparatively youthful State of Mississippi, I have found difficulty in obtaining reliable specimens of some soils, whose great productiveness had led to their cultivation by the earliest settlers, over the entire area of their occurrence.

I question the propriety of this omission, and the justice of the testimonium paupertatis thus inflicted upon agricultural and analytical chemistry.

To define my position, I premise that

1. I fully agree with Prof. Johnson as to the comparative uselessness of a single analysis giving the percentages of soil ingredients found, in ordinary cases. It is only when such analysis demonstrates the great abundance, or very great deficiency, of one or several primarily important ingredients, that, by itself, it conveys information of considerable practical importance. Note that such cases are not altogether infrequent, even in virgin soils.

2. I agree that an "average soil" is a non ens, except

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as referred, comparatively, to a particular set of soils closely related in their origin.

3. Also, that the claim of being able to detect the minute differences caused by cropping without return to the soil, is precarious, and perhaps beyond the power of our present analytical resources.

4. I further admit that, ordinarily, the analysis of soils long cultivated, and treated with manures, can give but little and very partial information as to the condition and composition of the soil; from the great difficulty, if not impossibility, of obtaining fair representative specimens. 5. Furthermore, that to designate soils by the names of the Cretaceous, Carboniferous, or Silurian strata they may happen to overlie, is very loose practice; since in most cases they are derived from Quaternary deposits, which may or may not have been influenced in their composition by the subjacent rocks.

On the contrary, I demur, in the first place, to the broad assertion that "it is practically impossible to obtain average specimens of the soil," as inapplicable to a very large class, especially of virgin soils, covering large areas with a uniformity of character corresponding to that of subjacent formations, from which they have been directly derived, by substantially identical and uniform, or uniformly variable processes.

The importance of this exception is not, it is true, very obvious in the stony fields of New England (such as discouraged Prof. Johnson in his vacation trip to Northern New York), or in fact, in any district where a great variety of formations has directly contributed toward forming the soil, and "chunks" of undecomposed minerals are diffused through it. In such cases, the analysis of the rock which has predominantly contributed to the mass of the soil proper, would be a more correct index of the prevalent characteristics of the latter than if itself were taken in hand. And from such analyses we could at least deduce what ingredients, and in what form, it would certainly be useless to add to the soil.

But when we come to the great plains of the West and South-West, whose soils are consistently derived from wide-spread quaternary deposits, composed of materials almost impalpable, save as regards siliceous sand, or even the rolling uplands of the Gulf States, whose subsoil stratum of" yellow loam" can only be diluted, but not otherwise changed, by the admixture of the underlying drift, leached long ago of everything soluble in carbonated water or available to plants: the objection based upon the supposed impossibility of securing representative specimens, becomes obviously untenable, as I shall hereafter show from the close correspondence in the composition of soils, and especially sub-soils, from widely distant portions of the State, derived from the same geological (quaternary) stratum.

A word in regard to the "freaks and accidents" mentioned by Prof. Johnson as liable to make sport of the devoted analyst. Undoubtedly such errors must be ultimately provided against by multiplication of analyses (not necessarily of the same acre, but of other corresponding specimens, in the sense mentioned above); and while questioning the efficiency of a bird or squirrel in vitiating a properly taken sample of soil, I must admit the disastrous consequences which might result if a dog, cow, or horse were similarly concerned. No specimen of "virgin soil can, of course, be obtained where such animals usually do congregate. But, as a rule, it is not all difficult to avoid such places; while the chance of accidentally hitting upon a sporadic animal deposit in the broad woods or prairies is singularly small, and is notably diminished by the circumstance, that an attentive observer (and none other should take soil specimens) will be able to distinguish such localities for years, by the peculiarity of their vegetation. I will remark, however, that I consider the sampling of a soil with a view to securing a representive specimen, as a matter second in difficulty and delicacy only to the analysis itself; that I rarely have thought it worth while to analyse specimens sent by other than

intelligent persons specially instructed by me; and even then have frequently had to reject them, from their having obviously been taken at an improper locality, e.g., near a footpath, by the side of a fence, on a partially denuded hillside or ravine, in the bed of a run, at the foot of a tree, &c.

The question of depth must, in my view, be left to be determined by the circumstances of each case, except in so far as the extreme depth to which tillage may cause the roots of crops to reach, must be within the limits of the samples taken. Of these, one should ordinarily represent what, under the usual practice of tillage, becomes the arable soil; another the subsoil not usually broken into; a third will in most cases be useful to show what materials would be reached were the land to be underdrained. As a rule, I have taken no specimens of soil to a less depth than six inches, and as much deeper as uniformity of colour reached-for obvious reasons. But in special cases, when important differences were suggested by the aspect of the soil and subsoil, they have been separately examined, at whatever depth the change of colour might occur.

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With soils of the character referred to, samples selected and taken with due care, and strict attention to thorough intermixture, both in the field and subsequently in the laboratory, I am unable to see why even two grammes may not correctly represent the characteristics of a 1000 acre tract. Not that every point of that tract would be likely to give the same percentage result, perhaps, especially as regards the surface soil, which might in places be more clayey or more sandy than the sample analysed. Still, the relative proportions of the soil ingredients, and their degree of availability, would remain substantially the same; the wider range and readier penetration of roots in sandier soils, making up, within certain limits, for the smaller percentage of available ingredients in a given bulk, as compared with more clayey ones.

From the fact that the atmospheric surface water must, in its course, inevitably have a tendency to bring about such inequalities, by carrying forward the finer particles of the soil in larger proportion than the coarser ones, as well as from the greater influence of vegetation, we shall, in the series of analyses, made a postulate by Prof. Johnson, expect to find a closer agreement between those of subsoils than those of surface soils. Such I find to be very decidedly the case; so much so that I habitually look to the former as the most reliable index of a soil's distinctive character. To this there can be no legitimate objection, when, as in all the upland soils now under consideration, the surface soil is directly derived from the subsoil, and its depth is less than thorough culture would give to the arable soil.

As regards the analysis itself, I premise that I have always found even the most "chemically pure" reagents sold by dealers quite inapplicable to the purpose of soil analysis. From first to last, I have prepared or purified these myself; and, as regards the acids, especially hydrochloric, I have found it necessary to reject, as a rule, even the purest, after keeping it for a few weeks in a glass bottle. The same is true, and perhaps in an aggravated degree, of aqua ammoniæ. The severe ordeal of slow evaporation on a bright platinum foil will rarely be passed by ammonia a fortnight old; and still less frequently by hydrosulphide of ammonium.

consideration, however, I found that the (sensibly constant) error so introduced would not, when allowed for, amount to more than the differences between two analyses of one and the same material, or vitiate in any serious degree the conclusions arrived at. Nevertheless, I shall hereafter, to the utmost possible extent, carry on all operations liable to introduce errors on this score, in platinum and porcelain vessels. as advised by Bunsen.

As regards Dr. Peter's failure to determine the amounts of soluble silex, nitric acid, ammonia, chlorine, and the degree of oxidation of the iron, I agree that the former is desirable, not only because, whether "essential" or not, some plants do habitually absorb it in very large quantities, and it might be best to let them have it; but also because it is a desirable index of the degree of decomposition which the soil silicates have undergone. I have therefore made this determination regularly, by boiling with solution of sodium carbonate. In a series of these determinations, an unmistakable relation between the soluble silex and the amount of lime in the soil becomes manifest; as might, indeed, have been foreseen.

As regards nitric acid, the consideration suggested by Prof. Johnson himself, viz., that its quantity must be exceedingly variable, within short periods, in one and the same soil, seems to me a sufficient dispensation from the laborious determination.

The same holds good, in a measure, for ainmonia. Its quantity varies continually in the soil, as it does in the atmosphere; its chief absorbers in the soil are "humus" and clay. Where these prevail largely, ammonia can scarcely be deficient as a nutritive ingredient to an injurious extent; albeit, more might doubtless be beneficially added. Moreover, the characteristic effects of ammonia on vegetation are sufficiently obvious (in "running to weed") to render its determination in virgin soils, laborious and even uncertain as it is, a matter of comparatively little practical consequence, however great might be its theoretical interest.

As for the determination of the degree of oxidation of iron, I confess I fail to see its practical bearing. When ferric oxide is present, plants surely can have no difficulty in reducing the modicum they need to a soluble condition. When ferrous oxide exists to any great extent, it indicates a want of drainage, and manifests itself both in the colour of the soil and in the poisonous effect on vegetation. But farmers surely do not need the aid of chemical analysis to tell them that their soil needs drainage and aëration! A determination made to-day would be of no value to-morrow, if the soil had been ploughed in the interval.

Finally, Dr. Peter does determine chlorine in the treatment of soils with carbonated water, though it is not put down in the general analysis. However, the soluble chlorides, like the nitrates, are so constantly liable to variation, and, as experience shows, so little likely to be deficient in the soil, that its omission would not be a serious practical objection.

(To be continued.)

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

MANCHESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY.

Ordinary Meeting, December 10th, 1872.

Armed with these, and a multitude of other precautions, usual and unusual, to secure the utmost possible accuracy; always treating the soil with the same large excess of acid of uniform strength, and precipitating all corresponding precipitates as much as possible from the same volume of liquid; using none but the best Bohemian J. P. JOULE, D.C.L., LL.D., F. R.S., &c., President, in the glass, and platinum vessels, and filters specially extracted -operating, in short, as uniformly as the nature of the materials would permit: I confess I felt considerable confidence in the correctness of my results, until the experiments made in Bunsen's laboratory, on the solubility of glass vessels, gave rise to unpleasant doubts. On

Chair.

"Observations of the Meteoric Shower of November 27th, 1872."

1. By E. W. BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.-On the 27th November last, at Douglas, in the Isle of Man, my

attention was called by an inmate of my house to numerous meteors in the sky. On going out of doors about 7.45 p.m., they were seen radiating from a point in Andromeda and falling in all directions towards the horizon, some not proceeding far down before they disappeared, whilst others travelled to a much greater distance. The sky was perfectly clear for three hours, during which time I observed them, and they appeared in all directions to be equally numerous except during the last hour. Some were as large as a star of the first magnitude and others were only just perceptible. Nearly all of them appeared to leave tails in their course, which were generally straight, but some of them were curled. In colour most of them were white or yellowish white, but some of the larger ones were of a reddish tinge. At about 7.45 p.m. six were noticed at one time. At 8.45, on looking at about a quarter of the space of the heavens, towards the west, I counted during a minute 21, II, 24, and 12 respectively. This would give an average of 17 per minute; assuming that the other three portions of the heavens afforded as many, and to me the meteors appeared to be about equally dispersed, so there would be probably about 68 per minute during the two first hours I observed them. At eleven o'clock they were still falling, but not so numerously. The early part of the evening was rainy, but it cleared up shortly before seven, and I am informed that meteors were then observed.

On the 3rd December inst., at 8.45 p.m., there was visible an aurora in the form of a beautiful arch of a yellowish white colour, extending from east to west, and reaching up to the lower parts of Ursa Major. A slight trace of streamers was seen on the top of the arch.

2. By JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S.-The early part of the evening of the 27th of November was cloudy, and the meteors were not seen till about 10 minutes to 7, when a partial clearing occurred. It soon became evident that they belonged to a distinct meteoric stream, and my attention was therefore chiefly directed to the determina- | tion of the position of the radiant point. The observations were, however, frequently interrupted by clouds, and at no time was the sky entirely cloudless. The intervals of observation and the number of meteors whose tracks were observed with sufficient precision to be of use in the determination of the position of the point of divergence were as follows:

h. m.

6 53 to
7 21

8

I

831 8 49

II 21 II 33 12 7

h. m.

7 9 G. M. Time....
7 51

8 15 834

9

2

II 27

II 54 12 19

Number of
Meteors.

65

54

80

9

31

7

15 ΙΟ

The total number was 271, and of these 266 had the points of intersection of their paths in an elliptical area of 12 degrees long and 8 or 9 degrees broad, the centre of which was in right ascension 22 degrees, and north declination 44 degrees, near the small star Chi Andromedæ. Three of the remaining five had their radiant point in the constellation Cassiopeia.

The average brightness of the meteors was equal to that of a star between the 3rd and 4th magnitudes; many, however, were equal to stars of the 1st magnitude, and several of the finest exceeded the planets Jupiter and Venus when in their positions of maximum brilliancy. The colour for the most part was white; in many, however, it was yellow or orange, and in several of the brightest it was at first white and then a deep red immediately before extinction.

Most of the brighter meteors left luminous trains, but these seldom remained visible for more than a few seconds.

The paths of many of the meteors were more or less curved, and many of them formed curves of double curvature.

It was observed that the radiant point appeared to move to the eastward during the progress of the shower, so that the mean position, from the observations made up to 8h. 34m., was about 3 degrees to the west of the position derived from the observations made afterwards.

The mean position of the radiant point, as given above, shows that the course of the stream coincides almost exactly with the orbit of Biela's comet.

3. By ALFRED BROTHERS, F.R.A.S.-The sky at Cheetham Hill, and I may therefore have had a better Wilmslow appears to have been less clouded than at 5.50 to 8.30 there was very little cloud, and during that view of the display than Mr. Baxendell. From about There was no difficulty in determining the radiant point— the meteors were falling very nearly at the same rate. y Andromeda being about the centre.

favourably for determining their radiancy than this one. Probably few meteor showers have ever been seen more The result of careful counting by myself and Mr. Wilde naked eye. The N.W. horizon was distinctly illuminated was that from 1800 to 2000 per hour were visible to the about 8 o'clock by auroral light, and the whole sky was more or less luminous during the whole time.

caves near

Mr. W. BOYD DAWKINS, F.R.S., brought before the notice of the Society some remarkable forms of stalagmites which he had obtained from some Tenby. In one cave the calcareous deposit had taken the form of small mushrooms standing close together with a stem not much thicker than a hair, that covered every part of the surface, and in some places had their tops of a dull red colour, and in others of a snow white. In a second every pool was lined with most beautiful crystals of a dog-tooth spar, while from the roof there descended slender stalactitic pillars, some snow white and others of a deep red, and most of the thickness of a straw. They stood almost as closely together as the stems of wheat in a wheat-field. In a few pools where the drip caused constant agitation of the water, pea-like rounded concretions of carbonate of lime were formed, some of which, polished by friction, were almost as lustrous as pearls, and might fairly be termed " cave-pearls."

"On the date of the Conquest of South Lancashire by the English," by W. BOYD DAWKINS, M.A., F.R.S. "On some Human Bones found at Buttington, Montgomeryshire," by W. BOYD DAWKINS, F.R.S.

"On the Electrical Properties of Clouds and the Phenomena of Thunder Storms," by Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A.

The object of this paper is to point out the three following propositions respecting the behavour of clouds under conditions of electrical induction, and to suggest an explanation of thunder storms based on these propositions and on the assumption that the sun is in the condition of a body charged with negative electricity: an assumption which I have already made in order to explain the Solar Corona, Comets' Tails, and Terrestrial Magnetism.

1. A cloud floating in dry air forms an insulated electrical conductor.

2. When such a cloud is first formed it will not be charged with electricity, but will be ready to receive a charge from any excited body to which it is near enough. 3. When a cloud charged with electricity is diminished by evaporation, the tension of its charge will increase until it finds relief.

I do not imagine that the truth of these propositions will be questioned, but rather that they will be treated as self evident. However, as a matter of interest, I have made some experiments to prove their truth, in which I

The apparent velocity of movement was decidedly less have been more or less successful. than that of the 13th of November meteors.

Experiment I was to show that a cloud in dry air acts

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