THE CHARK IN GREECE AND ROME. 45

called the instrument used for the purpose pyreia, and the drilling stick trupanon. The kinds of wood which were fittest to form one or other of the two parts of which the instrument consisted are specified by Theophrastus and Pliny, both of whom agree that the laurel (daphne) made the best trupanon, and next to it thorn and some other kinds of hard wood; whilst ivy, athragene, and Vitis sylvestris, were to be preferred for the lower part of the pyreia. Festus states that when the vestal fire at Rome happened to go out, it was to be rekindled with fire obtained by drilling a flat piece of auspicious wood (tabulam felicis materiæ). We gather from Theophrastus and Pliny whence it was that the chosen wood derived its "auspicious" character, for they both lay particular stress upon the fact, that the three kinds recommended by them were parasites, or-what amounted to the same thing in their eyes-climbers, that attached themselves to trees. The Veda prescribes for the same purpose the wood of an asvattha (religious fig), growing upon a sami (Acacia suma).* The idea of a marriage, suggested by such a union of the two trees, is also developed in the Veda with great amplitude and minuteness of detail, and is a

* The sami sprang from heavenly fire sent down to earth, and the asvattha from the vessel which contained it.

46

SACRED FIRES IN EUROPE.

very prominent element in the whole cycle of myths connected with the chark.

Among the Germans, as Grimm remarks, fire that had long been in human use, and had been propagated from brand to brand, was deemed unfit for holy purposes. As holy water needed to be drawn fresh from the well, in like manner fire which had become common and profane was to be replaced by a new and pure flame, which was called "wildfire," in contrast with the tame domesticated element. "Fire from the flint was no doubt fairly entitled to be called new and fresh, but either this method of procuring it was thought too common, or its production from wood was regarded as more ancient and hallowed." *

The holy fires of the Germanic races are of two classes. To the first class belong those which the Church, finding herself unable to suppress them, took under her own protection, and associated with the memory of Christian saints, or of the Redeemer. These are the Easter fires, and those of St. John's day, Michaelmas, Martinmas, and Christmas. second class consists of the "needfires," which have retained their heathen character unaltered to the present day. With occasional exceptions in the case

* D.M. 569.

The

SACRED FIRES IN EUROPE.

47

of the St. John's day fires, those of the first class are never lighted by friction, yet the Church has not quite succeeded in effacing the vestiges of their heathen origin. This is especially evident in the usages of many districts where the purity of the Easter fire (an idea borrowed from pagan tradition) is secured by deriving the kindling flame either from the consecrated Easter candles, or from the new-born and perfectly pure element produced by the priest with flint and steel. Montanus states, but without citing authorities, that in very early times the perpetual lamps in the churches were lighted with fire produced by the friction of dry wood. Formerly, "throughout England the [house] fires were allowed to go out on Easter Sunday, after which the chimney and fireplace were completely cleaned, and the fire once more lighted." How it was lighted may be inferred from the corresponding usages in Germany and among the Slavonians. In Carinthia, on Easter Sunday, the fires are extinguished in every house, and fresh ones are kindled from that which the priest has blessed, having lighted it with flint and steel in the churchyard. In the district of Lechrain, in Bavaria, the Easter Saturday fire is lighted in the churchyard with flint and steel, and never with sulphur matches. Every

household brings to it a walnut branch, which, after being partially burned, is carried home to be laid on the hearth fire during tempests, as a protection against lightning. Wolf says that the Church began by striking new fire every day; afterwards this was done at least every Saturday, and in the eleventh century the custom was confined to the Saturday before Easter, on which day fire from the flint is still produced, and blessed throughout the whole Catholic Church. With this new and consecrated fire, says Le Long, à Flemish writer of the sixteenth century, "every man lighted a good turf fire in his house, and had thereby holy fire in his house throughout the whole year."

It is otherwise with the needfires, which are for the most part not confined to any particular day. They used to be lighted on the occasion of epidemics occurring among cattle, and the custom is still observed here and there to this day. Wherever it can be traced among people of German or Scandinavian descent, the fire is always kindled by the friction of a wooden axle in the nave of a waggon wheel, or in holes bored in one or two posts. In either case the axle or roller is worked with a rope, which is wound round it, and pulled to and fro * Beiträge, ii. 389.

NEEDFIRES.

with the greatest possible groups of able-bodied men.

49

speed by two opposite The wheel was, beyond In a few instances

all doubt, an emblem of the sun. of late date it is stated that an old wagon-wheel was used, but this was doubtless a departure from orthodox custom, for it was contrary to the very essence of the ceremony. In Marburger official documents of the year 1605 express mention is made of new wheels, new axles, and new ropes; and these we may be assured were universally deemed requisite in earlier times. It was also necessary to the success of the operation that all the fires should be extinguished in the adjacent houses, and not a spark remain in any one of them when the work began. The wood used was generally that of the oak, a tree sacred to the lightning god Thor because of the red colour of its fresh-cut bark. Sometimes, especially in Sweden, nine kinds of wood were used, but their names are nowhere specified. The fuel for the fire was straw, heath, and brushwood, of which each household contributed its portion, and it was laid down over some length of the narrow lane which was usually chosen as the most convenient place for the work. When the fire had burned down sufficiently, the cattle were forcibly driven through it two or three times, in a certain order,

E